Luchazi Grammar

Luchazi (Lucazi, antonym: Chiluchazi) is a Bantu language of Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Namibia and Zambia. The language belongs to Ciokwe-Luchazi (K.13) class of the Niger-Congo languages (Language code: ISO 639-3 lch). Luchazi is the principal language of the Ngangela Group.

The Luchazi belong to a cluster of Bantu people called the Ngangela. Geographically, the Ngangela are found in the following provinces of Angola: Bie, Moxico, Cuando-Cubango and Cunene. Ngangela simply means the source of the sun or place of the rising sun; there is an old Luchazi saying, "Mu Ngangela mu na tili mu na ce" meaning when the place of the rising sun is red, it is dawn. The word Ngangela is also used to refer to a cluster of ethnic groups of the south-eastern and central Angola, and these are people who have common words such as 'Nga', 'Ange', 'Nguange' in their languages. Ngangela is a descriptor acceptable and often used interchangeably by some ethnic groups, however, many ethnic groups have individual preferences on how they would like to be described.

The word Ngangela was commonly used by the European merchants and their commercial agents (Kimbundu and Ovimbundu people commonly referred to as Vimbali) in the 18th century to describe the ethnic groups of people occupying the areas of south-eastern and central territories of the Portuguese colony of Angola. When the Portuguese military colonialists arrived in Angola, the word was massively used in a derogatory way to imply primitiveness or uncivilized people of the east. The word Ngangela has been portrayed as derogatory by some people because it is associated with past racist attitude of Portuguese colonialists, while many other people have embraced it as a descriptor of their historic groups.

This post or blog is reproduced from an edition (Luchazi Grammar by Emil Pearson) in the collection of the Africa Evangelical Fellowship. We live in an electronic age where people do everything from virtually anywhere on any device. The purpose of reproducing it is to make it easily accessible to those who wish to learn the Luchazi language. They say that “If you can speak your language, but you cannot write it properly or read it fluently, you are illiterate”.

The information in this post or blog has been edited to include definitions and tables (where applicable) that were missing in the previous edition. The authenticity and integrity of the original edition has been preserved, or in some cases simplified and amplified by defining certain terms or by using tables so that the average adult, who wishes to learn more about Luchazi language, is capable of comprehending the Luchazi grammar basically.

Orthography and Phonetics

Orthography is the study of spelling and how letters combine to represent sounds and form words according to standard usage. Luchazi is written using the Latin alphabet, with most characters representing the same sound as in English, with some exceptions. The letters Q, W, X and Y are not part of the proper alphabet and appear only in names or in a few native words and in borrowed words from Portuguese and other languages.

Phonology, according to Oxford dictionary, has been defined as “the system of contrastive relationship among the fundamental speech sounds of a language”. Phonetics is the study and systematic classification of the sounds made in spoken utterance. From the viewpoint of pure phonetics, the ordinary alphabet is inadequate, but by observing the general rules that follow, the student should have no difficulty.

Luchazi is written using the Latin alphabet, with most characters representing the same sound as in English, with some exceptions. c is pronounced like ch in church, n followed by k or g is always nasal like ng in ring, the sound of v is bilabial instead of labiodental.

Consonants

A consonant is any letter except a, e, i, o, and u. It is also defined as one of a class of speech sounds (such as \p\, \g\, \n\, \l\, \s\, \r\) characterized by constriction or closure at one or more points in the breath channel and which can be combined with a vowel to form a syllable. The following table displays all the consonants in Luchazi:

The position of the speech-organs in producing the consonants is different from the positions taken in producing the similar sounds in European languages. T and D, for example, are lower than in English but higher than in Portuguese. L is flatter-tongued than in either English or Portuguese. Practically all the consonants have similar differences. The language contains many consonantal glides, including the prenasalized plosives and the voiceless alveolar sibilant affricate (the ts sound).

We shall note only the unusual values that have been attached to some of the letters of the alphabet, viz: letter C is pronounced like ch in church, letter N followed by letter K or G is always nasal like ng in ring, and letter J (in Luchazi is always preceded by letter N) is pronounced as in English. Close attention should be given to letter V before U. This sound of letter V is bilabial instead of labiodental.

Vowels

A vowel is a speech sound which is produced by comparatively open configuration of the vocal tract, with vibration of the vocal cords and which can form a syllable. These letters are a, e, i, o, and u. The vowels have the so-called Continental or Italian values. In Luchazi, the sounds of the vowels are grouped into two: short vowels and long vowels. They are shorter when unstressed and are prolonged when doubled or when stressed at the end of a word.

The close front vowel (i), when occurring before another vowel, becomes a semi-consonant and is written y, unless it is immediately preceded by a consonant, when it remains i. Examples: yange, viange.

The vowel a is Long when accented, as a in father. Examples: tata, nana. Short when unstressed or before two consonants or y or s and in monosyllabic adverbs, as a in artistic. Examples: tata, paya, asa, hanga, ma-ma-ma. Prolonged when doubled or stressed at the end of a word or syllable. Examples: ku laako, tambuka.

The vowel e is Long when accented, as a in ale. Examples: heta, seza. Short when unstressed, as a in senate. Examples: hete, seze. Short with the value of e in met before two consonants. Examples: henga, lenda. Exceptions are hembo and membo (due to coalescence of vowels). Many words derived from Portuguese have the short vowel though not followed by two consonants. Examples: pena, papelo, luneta, ngehena, etc. Prolonged when stressed at the end of a word. Example: tambuka.

The vowel i is Long when accented, as e in eve. Examples: tina, sika. Short when unstressed or before two consonants, as e in event. Examples: citi, linga. In monosyllabics it is short, as i in it. Examples: ni, ndi. Prolonged when stressed. Examples: ti, fui.

The vowel o is Long when accented, as o in old. Examples: sota, koka. Short when unstressed, as o in obey. Examples: soko, loto. Short, with value of o in orb, before two consonants or y or s, and sometimes before z and in some monosyllables. Examples: onga, yoya, kosa, luozi, ndo. The o is long in zoza and ngozi. Sometimes prolonged when stressed at the end of a word. Example: to.

The vowel u is Long when accented, as u in rude. Examples: tuta, fula. Short, when unstressed or before two consonants or before s, as u in put. Examples: futuka, mbunga, kusa.

Diphthongs (gliding vowels)

A diphthong is a sound formed by the combination of two vowels in a sing syllable, in which the sound begins as one vowel and moves towards another. Diphthongs are frequent in Luchazi, letter I is pronounced like Y as in the word Niali (sister/brother-in-law). Similarly, letter U make a sound like W in English as the word Naua (again). There are several diphthongs in Luchazi and these are: ai, au, ia or ya˚, ie or ye˚, yi, io or yo˚, iu or yu˚, ua, ue, ui, and uo.

Consonantal glides

Consonantal glides are formed by the combination of two or three consonants. There are some unusual consonantal combinations. These are: mb, mp, nc, nd, ndz, ng, nj, nk, nt, nts, ts.

Euphony

Euphony is the tendency to make phonetic change of ease of pronunciation. The Luchazi language, for reasons of greater speed in utterance and or economy of effort, has marked combinatory changes that are harmonious to the ear of the Ngangela people. These changes are of three kinds: (1) coalescence of two vowels into one, (2) elision of a vowel or an entire syllable, and (3) umlaut (vowel mutation).

Coalescence

Coalescence occurs when the inseparable pronoun (nominative or objective), or the tense particles na or ka precede a verb beginning with a vowel. The preposition na coalesces with the following pronoun if the latter begins with a vowel, and the negating particle ka coalesces with the inseparable pronoun of the third person singular. The general rules are:

Some VaLuchazi tend to coalesce k and i forming c, as landacana for landakiana.

Elision

Elision is the process of merging or joining of words which result in sorter version of that word (such as ‘do not = don’t, there is = there’s’ etc.). In linguistics, an elision is the omission of a sound or syllable in speech. A number of nouns beginning with li drop this prefix when preceded by the locatives ha, ku or mu. Examples: hembo (ha limbo), kuihia (ku lihia), muzimo (mu lizimo), muilu (mu lilu), etc. Some nouns, which originally had the prefix li, have lost it, but it reappears in the alliterative concord. Examples: sisa liange (originally lisisa liange), tanga lietu (litanga lietu).

I before a vowel is elided after c and also after j in the personal pronoun nji. Examples: Cana (ciana), cu (ci u), ca (ci a), njamba (nji amba), nju hasa (nji u hasa), etc. The personal pronoun, third person singular, is elided before the tense particle na, but if the indicative pronoun precedes it, it reoccurs. Examples: na handeka, but, vi a na handeka.

M before b as in mbuatama, m before p as in mpano, n before g as in ngandalo, and n before t as in ntiengu, are scarcely audible when not immediately preceded by a vowel, but are to be distinctly heard in the body of a sentence.

Coalescence and elision are also very common in the case of the personal possessive pronouns and certain nouns expressing relationships. Examples:

Tatetu (tata yetu), sukuluange (sukulu yange), kukueni (kuku yeni), muanetu (muana uetu), yaliange (yala yange), mpanjenu (mpanji yenu), etc.

The copula is always suppressed after the noun muana, and often after muntu. Examples: Muana mpanga (muana ua mpanga), Muntu cilema (Muntu ua cilema), etc.

Umlaut

Umlaut is the change of a vowel (such as \ü\ to \ē\ in goose, geese) that is caused by partial assimilation to a succeeding sound or that occurs as a reflex of the former presence of a succeeding sound which has been lost or altered. The change of a root vowel sound by the influence of a vowel in a following syllable is noted when the negative particle ka precedes the inseparable pronoun u, when the preposition na precedes a pronoun beginning with u, and when the copulative particle is followed by a pronoun beginning with u, etc. Examples: ko u hasa (ka u hasa), no uze (na uze), no ukeuo (na ukeuo), ndoho yo uze (ndoho ya uze), yo u keze (ya u keze), etc.

Accent

Accent is a mark (such as ´, `, ^) used in writing or printing to indicate a specific sound value, stress, or pitch, to distinguish words otherwise identically spelled, or to indicate that an ordinarily mute vowel should be pronounced. It also means an emphasis given to a syllable or word in speech or music or an articulative effort giving prominence to one syllable over adjacent syllables. In most European languages stress is the chief element in accent and the elementary and secondary are the only ones usually indicated, and stress is therefore often made a synonym for accent. But in the treatment of the Luchazi language such usage is not sufficient. There are two kinds of accent:

Stress Accent (Emphatic or Dynamic)

The stress regularly falls upon the penultimate (next to the last) syllable, except in some foreign words. As a rule, the addition of a suffix causes the accent to move forward to the new penult. This is called rhythmic stress as compared with the former, which is called etymological stress. However, the addition of the locative and other enclitic suffixes does not change the stress except in the negative conjugation. In the latter the addition of the enclitics causes the stress to move to the preceding syllable. Example: nja vuíleko — ka nja vuiléko. In the case of monosyllabic verbs, the accent falls upon the preceding monosyllable. Example: u ye. The monosyllabic adverbs always receive the accent. Example: ci vuka tó.

Semantic Tone, Intonation, Pitch, Musical Chromatic Accent

Semantic tone is a very important feature of the Luchazi language as it serves to distinguish homographs and tenses. Examples: Kanda (not yet); ku kanda (to forbid); ku kanda (to dig up groundnuts); nja tava (I assented) - in the indefinite past; nja tava (I assented) - just now; nja ku panga, I have worked habitually (past tense of frequentative mood); nja ku panga, I shall work (immediate future tense of indicative mood).

Sometimes the stress accent and the musical accent fall on the same syllable but very often they are separated. When a strong musical accent falls on the antepenultima or preantepenultima, a weak musical accent usually falls on the ultima. Perhaps in time the scale of tone or pitch may be worked out so as to permit a scientific marking of its quality. If we take the homographs ku vumbika (to bury rubbish) and ku vumbika (to show honour or grace to), as examples, calling the united stress and musical accents of the first homograph “1” (as being the strongest), then in the second homograph the stress accent will be lower or “2”, the strongest musical accent will be “3”, the weak musical accent of the ultima will be “4” and the unaccented antepenultima will be “5”.

One cannot overemphasize the importance of acquiring correct accentuation. Some words are highly accented, and as vuzaluke (madness) and ntsenkulu (ancient times); while others seem almost devoid of tone quality, as pandakanenuko (add to it) and vusikumukilo (descent).

The last syllable of verbs in the singular of the imperative mode is often accented, and so is the final syllable of demonstrative pronouns when the speaker wishes to indicate the more or less exact location of the object referred to. This is usually accompanied with a raising of the head and a pointing with the lips. Examples: panga, linga, kuze, cize.

For emphasis the final syllable of a verb may be changed to “e” and accented strongly, the tone being prolonged, as tua pangele pange (We worked a very long time). In calling to someone the voice is raised on the last syllable. Often “e” is substituted for the final syllable or added to it. If the distance be great, “ho” is added (the voice being dropped on “ho”). Examples: tambuka, tambukenue, tambukenueho.

The Noun

A noun is any member of a class of words that typically can be combined with determiners to serve as the subject of a verb, can be interpreted as singular or plural, can be replaced with a pronoun, and refer to an entity, quality, state, action, or concept. The nouns are inflected by means of prefixes (sometimes called classifiers) to show number or state. The noun consists of two parts: the root (or stem) and the prefix. The root is invariable. The prefix may be singular or plural, personal or impersonal, diminutive, augmentative, or abstract. Examples:

Kuluntu (a compound root made up of kulu (old) and ntu (man); Mukuluntu (old person); Vakuluntu (old people), cikuluntu (biggest thing), likuluntu (huge old man), makuluntu (crowd of old men), kakuluntu (little or worthless old man), and vukuluntu (old age).

There are eight main classes of nouns distinguished from one another by their singular and plural prefixes. There are many subclasses, and these are classified according to their alliterative concord, but even in this there is a lack of homogeneity, as a number of these nouns will take two sets of harmonic particles, using one set with the possessive pronouns and another set with the other modifiers. This classification of nouns is an arbitrary division. Since classes 3, 4 and 5 take the same plural prefix in most cases, they might be looked upon as one class. Or, classes 4, 5 and 7 might be split up into six classes instead of three. Most nouns belonging to the eight classes and their subclasses have both singular and plural prefixes, but there are many nouns that have only the singular and others that have only the plural.

This classification of nouns is after all but an arbitrary division. Since class 3, 4 and 5 take the same plural prefix in most cases, they might be looked up as one class. Or, classes 4, 5, and 7 might be split up into six classes instead of three. One has just as good an argument for splitting up the classes as for uniting them or vice versa. But, in our arbitrary classification, we are following in the footsteps of other grammarians who seek simplicity in a smaller number of noun classes. As the subclasses overlap the main classes one needs a rule for classifying these, viz: subclasses should be placed under the main class whose alliterative concord they would be most apt to use with a pure adjective, such as –pi (bad).

There is no case inflection of nouns. The noun remains unchanged in all cases. The genitive is formed by the use of harmonic copulas and the dative by the use of prepositions.

There are no articles, definite or indefinite. The noun prefixes seem to take their place. If it be necessary to emphasize a certain noun, the demonstrative pronoun is used. The numeral adjective “one” is used when it is necessary to emphasize the fact of but one object.

Classification of Nouns

Class 1 (mu- va): this is called the Personal Class because nouns referring to persons belong to it. But in the Luchazi all animate beings take the pronouns and often the alliterative concord of this class, so it might be called the Animate Class. Even some inanimate and abstract things, which in the native mind have taken on transcending importance, belong to it, as Ndonga, tuhia, tulo and tusina. There are many subclasses, and these are classified according to their alliterative concord, but even in this there is a lack of homogeneity, as a number of these nouns will take two sets of harmonic particles, using one set with the possessive pronouns and another set with other modifiers. The leading subclasses are:

Class 2 (mu- mi): This might be called the Vegetable Kingdom Class, as most words for plants belong to it.
Class 3 (vu- ma): Most abstract nouns belong to this class and usually have no plural. Words may be made abstract by substituting vu- for the regular prefix, as mukuendze (young man), vukuendze (young manhood).
Class 4 (li- ma): The singular prefix li may be prefixed to other roots to give augmentative meaning, as vuta (gun), lita (large gun or cannon). ma- prefixed to another noun or root gives the meaning of great size or quantity. Words like tanga and sisa have lost their singular prefix but retain the pronoun and alliterative concord.
Class 5 (lu- ma) and (zi-): This is one of the most irregular of classes. There are several nouns that take both plurals, as lungano plural mangano or zingano. There are other nouns which retain their singular prefix in the plural and the plural prefix is added to it, as lumana- plural malumana; lupula- plural malupula; luindza- plural maluindza but, lusiho- plural masiho or malusiho.
Class 6 (ci- vi): This is one of the largest classes and next to Class 1 is the most important. It has been called the Thing Class, as the names of most the common articles belong to it. It also contains about a hundred words referring to persons and another hundred referring to animals, but these have been formed into a subclass of Class 1. There are more than a hundred abstract nouns in this class which are not usually used in the plural, as cilemo (love), cizindo (hate), etc. ci- and vi- may also be prefixed to other nouns to show contempt in the same manner as lu-.
Class 7 (lost)- (zi- or vi-): As there is usually no prefix in the singular this has been called the Lost Prefix Class. a few words like inca and intso have retained the prefix i, and in the Nyemba language this prefix is common. Subclasses C and D under Class 1 may have belonged to this class originally as they still use its prefix with the possessive pronoun. A few words take the plural prefix vi- but this may be due to contact with the VaMbunda who use vi- altogether.
Class 8 (ka- tu): This is the Diminutive Class. Words may be made diminutive by substituting ka- for the regular prefix or prefixing it to the regular prefix. Examples: cikolo (door), kakolo or kacikolo (small door); lilonga (plate), kalilonga (small plate). ka- is also depreciative, as kafueto (poor pay or little pay). tu- must always be used when a plural prefix is retained. Examples: tumema (a little water), tuvantsi (a few fish).

In addition to the eight main classes and the subclasses there are the locative classes and the verbal noun class. These may be simple or be complex compounds as to structure.

verbal Nouns: Any verb may be used as a noun by using the infinitive form of the verb, viz. the particle ku plus the verb. To distinguish the verbal noun from the infinitive in writing, the hyphen is used. Example: ku-tsa(death). The verbal nouns take the pronouns and the alliterative concord of the ci class. Example: ku-tsa ceni ci li ku hiehi (his death is near).
The locative Class: They are based upon the three prepositions ha, ku and mu. Ha has reference to time or place and means "at, on, when, by, through or upon." Ku usually indicates motion to, from or at. Mu denotes position, usually interior position, as "in, within, to or from within."

Ha has reference to time or place and means "at, on, when, by, through or upon," as ha mesa (on the table), ha ku ivua (upon hearing), etc.

Ku usually indicates motion to, from or at. Example: ku Muye (at, to or from Muye).

Mu denotes position, usually interior position, as "in, within, to or from within." Example: mu ndzivo (in the house).

Ha and mu are used in similar constructions, but care should be used to distinguish the meanings. Examples: Ha ku ya tua sevukile (at the time of going we erred) and mu ku ya tua sevukile (by going we erred).

These three locatives prefixes may be used with almost any noun or verb to form locative nouns, as hembo ha li luozi (at the village there is a fight), kua ku-kala kuetu (our abiding place), ha ku panga ha nja uanene ngolo (through working I found strength). It may be noted that the English equivalents lose the substantival character of the native idiom. One has to learn to “think native.”

Many locative nouns are formed with nouns that are not now used by themselves. They have become “weak” through association with the locatives. Such as are: ku kulutue, ha mbandza, mu ntima, ha kati, ku nima, ha hiehi, ku laako, etc. Example: muimbo lietu mua mupi (conditions in our village are bad). Note that the personal possessive pronoun –etu takes the alliterative con concord of limbo but that mua retains the locative concord.

Notes on Nouns

Letter A placed before a noun is a sign of the vocative case. Example: a ndona (o lady!). Something similar is used with verbs, as e nehienu (oh bring ye!).

There is also a playful or coquettish way of using the nouns. If the noun ends in –a this is changed to –e, as vunga, for vunga (flour), the voice being slightly raised on the final syllable. If the noun ends in –i, -o or –u, then –e is added, but if the noun already ends in –e, then –i- is placed before the –e. Examples: Civundue, Livokoe, Mutie, Cipokie and Nane (Civundu, Livoko, Muti, Cipoke, and Nana).

There are some double nouns, perhaps due to the loss of the copula through common usage, as mbimba ntsompo, muntu cilema, muana mpanga, etc.

Some nouns are only used in the singular, as mundele, muandza, vuihua, musambe. They have a collective meaning. Example: mundele ungahi (how much maize?); musambe ua uingi (much/plenty sweet potato).

Other nouns have no singular: mema, mavisi, mazi. If a plural of these be desired, it may be formed by prefixing vi-, as vimema. Other nouns like masa and masangu have a singular but it is seldom used. Others, like mbuto, have a plural but that is seldom used. Vimbuto would mean “seeds of various kinds.”

Zi may be used as in zimehia (cultivated fields) to give the idea of quantity. Also va- as vatutali (dogs).

Some nouns, as has already been noted, lose their prefix when used with the locative prefixes, as muzimo (mu lizimo), muimbo (mu limbo), muilu (mu lilu), etc.

When the root of a noun begins with i-, this coalesces with the a-, or i- of the prefix, as vezi, membo, helu, cizi, etc.

Mulongisi has two plurals: valongisi and milongisi.

Some nouns have variants, as ndongesi or ndongisi, cilinga or clingo, cipange or cipanga, citeli or citele.

Words like cizava (faintness due to hunger) are made to agree with the subject as to number. Examples: ua tsile cizava (he fainted with hunger), but va tsile vizava (they fainted with hunger).

If there are two noun objects, the objective comes last. Example: mu ku vuisa ngandi nstoni (to make so-and-so feel shame).

For clarity double objects are often used. Example: va mu kuaniene Yesu.

The Derivation and Formation of Nouns

The language is exceedingly rich in sources for the production of noun-forms. The derivation is mostly from verbs, though nouns, adjectives and other parts of speech furnish some.

I. From Verbs

The simple verbal noun: ku-lia (food), ku-tsa (death), ku-panga (work).
The verbal noun with its object: ku-va-kuasa ceni (by his helping them).
The copulas ca and via with the verbal noun: ca-ku-linga, via-ku-linga, via-ku-lia. Often this form is followed by na and the enclitic pronoun, as: via-ku-likuasa-navio viahi (not having any resource of help).
Adding a prefix to the verb-stem: cifua, cikuama, cikukuma, Muhuza, kanua, livinda, mutual, etc.
Adding a prefix and changing the final vowel to –e: ciheve, cihuke, cihulame, cipuye, mukangule, vulahe, muovole, etc.
Adding a prefix and changing the final vowel to –i: kaniungi, cambangani, mukasi, mukuli, mutsi, etc.
Adding a prefix and changing the final vowel to –o: ceseko, cifuiko, cihiso, cikango, ciliato, muhotolo, lipito, etc.
Adding a prefix and changing the final vowel to –u: citungu, lihangununu, mukulu, lihuzu, etc.
Adding a prefix and dropping the final syllable: vuasi (asiua), cihindu (hinduka), mulambu(lambala), vusunga (sungama), luhande (handeka), muzimbu (zimbula), kakoho (kohola), vupi (pihia), lisungu (sungula), muhale (haleka), etc.
Adding a prefix with a change in the verb-stem: cala (hala), cavu (zavuka), ciko (hika), vuana (hana), ciyambi (yomba), cula (hula), citanguizi (tangula), cisanguizi (sandula), lumbandzi (vadzila); and of the lost prefix class: ngolo (kola), nkuli (kula), mbelo (kovela), mpimo (hima), ndimi (lima), etc.
Adding a prefix to the causative form of the verb (sometimes with a change of the vowel): cikombeso (kombesa), citantekeyeso (tantekeyesa), cikomoueso (komouesa), muyoyesi (yoyesa), etc.
Adding a prefix to the prepositional form of the verb (sometimes with a change of the final vowel): cikutila, cisuilo, katalelo, ndzolela, cikungulukilo, etc.
Adding a prefix to a verb plus a noun, cikuatankanga, kazikamatuitui, kasendankuve, etc.
Adding a prefix to a verb plus an enclitic: mukaleho (kalaho), mundiho (liho), etc.
Prefixing the pronoun mukua (pl. vakua) to the infinitive of the verb: mukua-ku-panga (workman), vakua-ku-tava (believers), mukua-ku-hiana (overcomer, winner).
Prefixing the copula ua (pl. va) to the verb-stem: uasinama (fool), uayambangana (senseless chatterer).
Nouns designating “manner of” are formed by dropping the final –a (sometimes the final syllable) of the verb and suffixing –isi or –esi. Vu- may also be prefixed. Often the stem-vowel is changed to –i- to harmonize with the new ending. Examples: endesi or vuendesi (manner of walking) from enda, imbisi (manner of singing), from imba, sonekesi (manner of writing) from the soneka, tongisi (manner of sewing) from tonga, sansei, hanesi, vuambatisi, tandesi or tandisi, etc. mpandikisi, where m- is prefixed to the verb pandeka.

Note: Words ending in –uizi (noted under 10) sometimes take an alternative ending –uisi.

II. From Nouns

1By change of prefix, to augment: Lisumbi, limpuevo, mampuevo, etc.

2. By change of prefix, to diminutive: kana, kakuendze, etc.

3. By change of prefix, to show contempt: kakuluntu, lumpuevo, cikuluntu, etc.

4. By prefixing the new prefix before the regular one: kalilonga, zimehia, etc.

5. By change of prefix to make abstract: vuntu, vunike, etc.

6. By change of prefix to form a related noun: cilimi (from lilimi), citi (from muti), etc.

7. Adding prefix to a composite stem: mukuluntu, cimpindakati, kasinakazi, etc.

8. Prefixing pronoun mukua (pl. vakua) to noun or to verb and noun: mukua mana, vakua Yesu, mukua ku vundila vuana, etc.

9. By prefixing ka (pl. va) to abstract noun: kavusoko, vavusamba, kavuhale.

10. By prefixing copula ca- (pl. via) to noun: ca-muntu, via-ndzivo.

11. By prefixing ca- (pl. via) to locative noun: via-mu-ntima, ca-mu-ndoho, etc.

12. By prefixing the intensive pronoun to the noun: livene-ndzivo, ivene-ndoho, vavene-limbo, ivenea-vulo, etc.

III. From other Parts of Speech

1. From adjectives: (a) using the pure adjective stem with a prefix: cindende, vindende, vundende, cingi, vingi, vuigi, etc; (b) by prefixing copula and adjective prefix: via-vingi, va-veni, etc.

2. From the possessive pronouns: ceni, viange, vuove, etc.

3. By suffixing the enclitic pronoun to the intensive pronoun: ivenevio, iveneaco, vaveneo, etc.

4. From the locatives with possessive pronoun: kuange, muetu, havo, tec.

5. By prefixing the verb phrase ua kala (pl. va kala) to a noun: ua-kala-luozi, va-kala-zimpata, etc.

6. By prefixing ua (pl. va) to a noun or a phrase: ua-kanua, ua-katete, ua-tsa-ha-ku-lia, etc.

7. From adverbial particles: kavuivuivui, kaveveve, etc.

8. From the locative nouns: ku-lutue-luetu (our front), ku-nima- yaco (its back), etc.

9. From nouns by joining one noun to another noun or a verb by the copula: ndzivo-ya-vipanga, hondo-ya-ku-lila, etc.

Note: We note here the distinction between ka and mukua as prefixes in relation to people. Ka is used for a member of a tribe. Mukua is used of a person as a living in a certain country or village or on a certain river. The plural va may be used of a village when treating its inhabitants collectively as represented in the headman, as VaKazuangu nguavo –kazuangu (as representing his village) says. But vakua Kazuangu nguavo, some of the Kazuangu villagers say.

Note: The adverbial intensives are often treated as nouns. See under Adverbs.

The Alliterative Concord

In Luchazi, as in other Bantu languages, concord is established by means of prefixes and copulas which are derived from the class prefixes. This alliterative concord is used to connect the modifiers to the nouns modified. There are three parts, as seen in the tables: the Class Prefix, the Harmonic Copula (made up of the Class Pronoun plus a), and the Adjective Prefix (which is identical with the Class Pronoun except in the singular of Class 1).

Singular

Class	Noun prefix	Copula	Adjective prefix	Example
1	mu-	ua	mu-	muntu ua mupi
2	mu-	ua	u-	muti ua upi
3	vu-	vua	vu-	vuta vua vupi
4	li-	lia	li-	lizo lia lipi
5	lu-	lua	lu-	luholo lua lupi
6	ci-	ca	ci-	citi ca cipi
7	i-	ya	i-	mpoko ya ipi
8	ka-	ka	ka-	kavanja ka kapi
Verbal Noun	ku-	ca	ci-	ku-tala ca cipi
Locatives	ha- ku- mu-	ha kua mua	ha- ku- mu-	ha-mbandza ha hapi ku ndzivo kua kupi mu-citungu mua mupi

Plural

Class	Noun prefix	Copula	Adjective prefix	Example
1	va-	va	va-	vantu va vapi
2	mi-	ya	i-	miti ya ipi
3	ma-	a	a-	mata a api
4	ma-	a	a-	mazo a api
5	ma-	a	a-	maholo a api
	zi-	zia	zi-	zimbongo zia zipi
6	vi-	via	vi-	viti via vipi
7	zi-	zia	zi-	zimpoko zia zipi
	vi-	via	vi-	vimbuto via vipi
8	tu-	tua	tu-	tuvanja tua tupi

There is no case inflection of nouns; they are alike in all cases. The possessive takes the form of a genitive with the copula (equivalent to the preposition “of” in English). Example: ngombe ua yala (the ox of the man, or the man’s ox).

Only a few adjectives take both the copula and the adjective prefix. Some take only the copula while others take only the adjective prefix. These will be found under the chapter on Adjectives. The verbs expressing the colours take the adjective prefix and must be considered irregular. Example: muntu mulava (black man).

Pronouns also take the adjective prefix of the noun they modify. These will be noted later on.

In the classes having ma in the plural, the adjective prefix sometimes coalesces with the copula, leaving a single a. Example: malonga andende.

Many nouns in Class 1 are often used irregularly with the zi- prefix, as vampuevo zietu (our wives).

A few nouns are never connected with their noun modifiers by the copula, that is, the copula is suppressed, as muana-mpanga, muana-muntu. The nouns for “ten”, “hundred” and “thousand” do not take the copula if they follow the noun they modify, but, if the noun modified id placed in the genitive, the copula is used. Examples: vangomba likumi, vampanga cihita, vampembe likulukazi, but likumi lia ngombe, etc. Sometimes a noun stands in apposition to the noun modified, as muntu cilema, yala ciheve, and mbimba mukumbi. The second noun has the force of an adjective.

Words like luhavo (female animal) can govern, or be governed by, the limiting noun. Example mpanga ua luhavo, luhave lua mpanga.

Nouns that have the prefix of one class of nouns but use the pronouns of another class, very often take the alliterative concord of either, as kangelo ua muangana ua sukukile, or kangelo ka muangana ua sulukile.

The Pronoun

The Bantu languages are very rich in pronouns. Many of these have no counterpart in the European languages and are difficult to translate. In the tables of pronouns given in this chapter there is no attempt to follow European grammatical systems but rather a classification according to the structure of Luchazi.

The Separable or Absolute Pronoun

This pronoun is also called independent, disjunctive or substantive. In its usage is corresponds closely to the French disjunctive pronoun. It may be used independently of the verb, after prepositions, when the verb is understood but not expressed, in a compound subject or object, in comparisons, for emphasis, and with the intensive pronoun “self”. Example: Yange? Neha kuli ange. Yange njila. Yange nove tu ka ya. Mu hie ikeye nange. U ka nji leka yange. Yange ivene.

	Class	Singular	Plural
1st person		yange, ange	yetu, etu
2nd person		yove, ove	yenu, enu
3rd person	1	ikeye, yakeye, likeye, liakeye	vakevo
	2	ukeuo	ikeyo
	3	vukevuo	akeo
	4	likelio	akeo
	5	lukeluo	akeo, zikezio
	6	cikeco	vikevio
	7	ikeyo	zikezio, vikevio
	8	kakeko	tuketuo
	Verbal Noun	cikeco
	Locatives	hakeho kukekuo mukemuo

Note the construction of this pronoun: it is made up of the indicative pronoun, plus the invariable particle ke, plus the enclitic pronoun (except in the case of the 1^st and 2^nd persons of Class 1).

The Inseparable Pronoun

This is variously known as the Primitive or Connective Pronoun, the Pronominal Prefix or Subjectival Concord. It is always used as the immediate subject of a verb and is never omitted except in the imperative mode. When a substantive is used, the immediate subject is the inseparable pronoun, and the substantive stands in apposition to it. It may be used with the verb understood, viz. nji muntu (I am a person). The objective form of the pronoun is used in the accusative and also in the dative when no preposition is used. The objective pronoun always precedes the verb and is placed next to it.

In the following table, of the three forms of the pronoun shown in the Nominative Case, the first is the one used with most tenses whether past, present or future; the second is used with some past tenses, some present and future (idea expressed is that of the something finished); the third is used in the habitual mood and the conditional. The third person singular of the first class has variants. There is no difference in meaning. The more common is a.

	Class	Singular Nominative	Singular Nominative	Singular Nominative	Singular Objective	Plural Nominative	Plural Nominative	Plural Nominative	Plural Objective
1st person		nji	nja	nje	nji	tu	tua	tue	tu
2nd person		u	ua	ue	ku	mu	mua	mue	mi
3rd person	1	a, u	ua, a	ue, e	mu	va	va	ve	va
	2	u	ua	ue	u	i	ya	ye	i
	3	vu	vua	vue	vu	a	a	e	a
	4	li	lia	lie	li	a	a	e	a
	5	lu	lua	lue	lu	a	a	e	a
						zi	zia	zie	zi
	6	ci	ca	ce	ci	vi	via	vie	vi
	7	i	ya	ye	i	zi	zia	zie	zi
						vi	via	vie	vi
	8	ka	ka	ke	ka	tu	tua	tue	tu
	Verbal Noun	ci	ca	ce	vi
	Loc.	ha ku mu	ha kua mua	he kue mue	ha ku mu

Note that the inseparable pronoun is the same as the prefix, but when the prefix has an initial mi-, this is dropped. Class 1 is an exception.

Ci and vi are used when the antecedent is omitted or is indefinite or after several substantives or after a clause. Examples: tu ci tantekeya (we know it, referring to something mentioned); zimpuko, malonga na mbolo vi li kuno (the knives, plates and bread are here).

For politeness the plural is used. Example: mua hinduka? (Are you well?). When two pronouns occur together in the objective case, the objective pronoun is used as the indirect object and is placed before the verb, while the enclitic pronoun is used as the direct object and is suffixed to the verb. Examples: nji mi hiaye (I give him to you); a ka mu hiaco (he will give him it).

“All of us” and “all of you” are expressed by tu va vose and mu va vose.

The Positive Indicative Pronoun

There is no exact term in English that corresponds to the use of this pronoun, so a new term has been chosen in order to distinguish it from others. It is positive because there is also a negative. It is relative or conjunctive since it connects a clause to its antecedent. It is objective since it may be translated into English by a pronoun that in English is in the objective case. It is demonstrative in that its main force seems to be to point out or emphasize its antecedent. Since there are several sets of simple and compound demonstratives, we thought it better to use a new term that would be free from ideas definitely associated with other nomenclature. This pronoun is never used as the subject of a verb but is always the introductory word of the clause. Its use seems to be perfectly illustrated by “him” in Isaiah 8: 13 (RV) “Jehovah of hosts, him shall ye sanctify.” It may be translated by the regular pronoun or the relative pronoun, in the objective case, but from the viewpoint of native speech its force is to point out or emphasize. Example: Yesu, I mu ka tsiliela (Jesus, He it is that you must trust, or, Jesus, Him you must trust, or, weaker, Jesus, you must trust Him). Examples: Talenu ngamba yange I nji na hangula (Behold my servant whom I have chosen); Njambi, I tua leme (God, He it is whom we love).

When the preposition na is used with the verb, then the enclitic is suffixed to na to complete the thought. Examples: evi vi a li navio. (Though there are two pronouns, the indicative and the enclitic, yet the English translation contains but one: These/things/they are the ones that he has); ku ngandza ize I nji ku nua ange, ku mu ka nua enu (of the cup, of the which I drink, you shall drink); ntelo I mu hasa ku zima nayo mivi yose ya tuhia (the shield, with the which you will be able to quench all the fiery arrows).

Class	Singular	Plural
1	i, ya	va
2	u, ua	i, ya
3	vu, vua	a
4	li, lia	a
5	lu, lua	a, zi, zia
6	ci, ca	vi, via
7	i, ya	zia, zia, vi, via
8	ka	tu, tua
Verbal Noun	ci, ca
Locatives	ha ku, kua mu, mua

Note that except for the singular of Class 1 this pronoun is the same as the inseparable pronoun in the nominative case. It is given here in full because of its importance in the construction of other pronouns. The pronoun of Class1 may be used for all persons. As whether you should use the simpler form (i, u, vu, li) or the form with –a, (ya, ua, vua, lia), depends on the speaker. The simpler form is more common, but some speakers use both.

The Negative Indicative Pronoun

This pronoun is the positive pronoun with the suffixes -nts, -Ntsimbu or -simbu and is always followed by the negatives ka or kanda. The negative pronoun is exactly the same in meaning as the positive except that it negates whatever is stated by the clause it introduces. Examples:

Satana, intsa ka mu ka tava (Satan, him you must not assent to);
Viuma vize vintsa ka nja lingile (those things, them I didn't do);
Eci ci nji ku linga cintsa ka u ku tantekeya vuovuno (this which I do, it thou knowest not now);
Ue ku tia kuze kuntsa ka ua kuvile (thou reapest there where thou didst not sow);

It is often followed by the interrogative pronouns iya (who) or -ka (which, what) with the prefix of the class referred to. Examples:

Muntsa (or muntismbu) ka nja lingile muka? (what didn't I do there?);
Intsa (or intsimbu) ka nja muene iya? (whom didn't I see?).

Note: With the preposition nga, the negative indicative pronoun forms ants etc., which is used in conditional verbal construction.

Class	Singular	Plural
1	intsa, yantsa, yantsimbu, Isimbu, yasimbu,	vantsa, vantsimbu, vasimbu
2	untsa, uantsa, untsimbu, uantsimbu, Usimbu, uasimbu	intsa, yantsa, intsimbu, Yantsimbu, isimbu, yasimbu
3	vuntsa, vuantsa, vuntsimbu, vuantsimbu, vusimbu, vuasimbu	antsa, antsimbu, asimbu
4	lintsa, liantsa, lintsimbu, liantsimbu, lisimbu, liasimbu	antsa, antsimbu, asimbu
5	luntsa, luantsa, luntsimbu, luantsimbu	antsa, antsimbu, asimbu, Zintsa, ziantsa, zintsimbu, Ziantsimbu, zisimbu, ziasimbu

The Enclitic Pronoun

The enclitic pronoun is used (1) in the formation of other pronouns; (2) when there is ready a pronoun used as the indirect object. In the latter case it is suffixed to verb, as nji ka ku hiaco (I shall give you it). The enclitic pronoun has no accent of its own and does not change the accent of the word to which it is suffixed except in the negative conjugation. The enclitic pronoun is never used alone but is always suffixed to its governing word. Example: vianaye (refuse him).

Class	Singular	Plural
1	-ye	-vo
2	-uo	-yo
3	-vuo	-o
4	-lio	-o
5	-luo	-o
		-zio
6	-co	-vio
7	-yo	-zio
		-vio
8	-ko	-tuo
Verbal Noun	-co
Locatives	-ho -kuo, -ko -muo, -mo

Note that the enclitic pronoun is made up of the indicative pronoun plus the particle o, except in the singular of Class 1, which is irregular. Note the coalescence of vowels which accounts for seeming irregularities. The locative enclitics must never be used as mere emphatics. They always have their locative meaning.

There is a general enclitic –ndzo, which may be suffixed to nouns, verbs, pronouns, adverbs, etc., to give the meaning of “then” with strong emphasis. Example: angendzo, vikandzo, citungundzo?

The Possessive Pronoun

The rule is: the enclitic pronoun of the possessor follows the copula of the thing possessed. -ange (singular) -etu (plural), -ove (singular) -enu (plural), -eni (singular) -avo (plural). For the remaining classes the possessive is the same as the enclitic.

	Class	Singular	Plural
1st Person		-ange	-etu
2nd Person		-ove	-enu
3rd Person	1	-eni	-avo
	2	For the remaining classes the possessive is the same as the enclitic.

The Intensive or Emphatic Pronoun

This pronoun expresses the thought of “self” as in “myself”, etc. it consists of the indicative pronoun plus the constant vene. Often a is inserted after the indicative pronoun, but the meaning is identical. This pronoun is also used with a noun or the enclitic pronoun to show possession, as ivenevio (the owner of them), vaveneco (the owners of it), ivene ndzivo (the owner of the house), and vavene mehia (the owners of the gardens). This form is undoubtedly the result of elision, as ivene ndzivo for ivene ya ndzivo, etc. An a is often added to the stem when it shows possession, ivenea ndzivo, vaveneaco, etc.

Class	Singular	Plural
1 (all persons)	ivene, yavene, livene, liavene	vavene
2	uvene, uavene,	ivene, yavene
3	vuvene, vuavene	avene

The student can easily complete this table by observing the above mentioned rules.

The Reflexive and Reciprocal Prefix li

Li is not a pronoun but a particle prefixed to verbs to give them a reflexive or reciprocal meaning. It is mentioned here since it is translated into English by a pronoun but it will be discussed later under The Verb.

The Relative Pronoun

The relative pronoun does not exist as a separate form, but is identical with the inseparable pronoun. It is used in two, (1) as the subject of the dependent clause, example: viuma viose vi li ha mavu, Njambi na vi tanga (all things that are on the earth, God has created them), and (2) as the object of the dependent clause, example: vuima viose, Njambi na vi tanga, via viuka (all things that God has created are lovely). In the latter case it is better to use the positive indicative pronoun, as viuma viose, vi a na tanga Njambi, via viuka. The demonstrative pronoun is much used in relative constuctions. Example: uze a mu tsiliela Muana Njambi, a li na vukaleho muli ikeye ivene: uze ka tsiliela Njambi na mu puisa mukua makuli (1 John 5: 10).

There is another form which is much used to express the relative pronoun. This pronoun is mukua (pl. vakua). Some grammarians consider it a demonstrative pronoun. Mukua means “he who, he that, or the one who”. It is placed immediately before the word or phrase it governs. Examples: mukua ku imba (he who sings, the singer); mukua ngolo (he who is strong, the strong one); vakua nima (they who are behind, the stragglers); mukua via vingi (he who has much).

The Interrogative Pronoun

The interrogative pronouns, who, which and what, are rendered by iya (pl. veya) and vika. When used as interrogative adjectives the roots are –iya and –ka; -iya takes as its prefix the copula of the class it modifies, while –ka takes the adjective prefix of the class it modifies. Examples: muhela ueya (whose bed?); muntu muka (what person?); kasitu muka (what animal, or what species of animal?); vuta vueya (whose gun?); lilonga lika (which plate?).

The indefinite Pronoun

As in English, the indefinite pronoun is also used as an adjective.

The root –ose takes the copula of the class referred to and has the meaning of “all, everybody, everyone, everything, whole.” Examples: vose va li kuno (all are here); kasitu uose (the whole animal); uose u li kuno (the whole is here); viose vi li ha mesa (everything is on the table).

The roots –mo and –mosi also take the copula to form a pronoun meaning “some, one, aught, somebody, something, any.” Examples: vamo nguavo (some say); umosi ngueni (someone says).

“Anyone” and “anybody” are expressed by nkala muntu or muntu uose. “Any” or “anything” are also expressed by nkala and –ose, as nkala cuma (anything), nkala muhela (any bed) or cuma cose, muhela uose. These terms also mean “whosoever” and “whatsoever”.

“Both” is expressed by –ose -vali. Example: vose vavali vezile (both came).

“Nobody, no one, naught” and “nothing” are expressed by na –mo -ahi. Examples: na umo uahi (nobody); na vimo viahi (nothing).

“Each one” is expressed by repeating the noun referred to, with the locative preposition ku. Example: (ku) muntu ku muntu (each person). It is also expressed by –mo (na) –mo. Example: vantu vose umo (na) umo va na pande ku neha mulambu (each person must bring tribute).

“Some day” is expressed by kota. Example: kota nji ka ya kuimbo (some day I am going home).

Muntu is used for “one” in its impersonal sense. Example: muntu ka hasa ku linienga (one can’t complain).

-a –ingi express “much, many, several”; -a –ndende expresses “few, little”. Examples: via vingi vi liko (much is there); via vindende vi limo (little is in there).

Cipue reduplicated before words gives the meaning of “either”. Examples: cipue ou cipue uze na pande ku ya (either this one or that one has to go); cipue yala cipue mpuevo (either a man or a woman). With the negative particle it gives the meaning of “neither”. Example: cipue eci cipue oco ka ci ka vantuka (neither this nor that will snap).

“More, other” and “another” are translated by –kuavo with the adjective prefix. Example: mukuavo a li oko (the other is there); vikuavo vi li kuno (more is here).

-a ku puamo expresses “enough”. Example: via ku puamo vi liko (enough is there).

-a ngecize translates “such”. Example: via ngecize ka vi viuka (such are not nice).

The Demonstrative Pronoun

There are four groups of simple demonstrative pronouns with their corresponding plurals. The first means “this” with the thought of actually touching the object. The second means “this” with the thought of being so near that the object may be touched. The third means “that”, the object still being near the speaker but too far away to be touched, but the fourth has the meaning of “that yonder”. The last form may be used with a rising tone on the last syllable to indicate that which is far off, and by sustaining the tone it can be made to indicate something at a very great distance. This accentuation is often accompanied by gestures such as pointing with the lips.

Class	Group 1 Singular	Group 2 Singular	Group 3 Singular	Group 4 Singular	Group 1 Plural	Group 2 Plural	Group 3 Plural	Group 4 Plural
	"This"	"This"	"That"	"That yonder"	"This"	"This"	"That"	"That yonder"
1	uno	ou	ouo, oo	uze	vano	ava	ovo	vaze
2	uno	ou	ouo	uze	ino	eyi	oyo	ize
3	vuno	ovu	ovuo	vuze	ano	aa	oo	aze
4	lino	eli	olio	lize	ano	aa	oo	aze
5	luno	olu	oluo	luze	ano	aa	oo	aze
					zino	ezi	ozio	zize
6	cino	eci	oco	cize	vino	evi	ovio	vize
7	ino	eyi	oyo	ize	zino	ezi	ozio	zize
					vino	evi	ovio	vize
8	kano	aka	oko	kaze	tuno	otu	otuo	tuze
Verbal Noun	cino	eci	oco	cize
Locatives	hano kuno muno	aha oku omu	oho okuno, oko omuo, omo	haze kuze muze

Note the construction of the four groups of pronouns:

Group 1: Suffix –no to the inseparable pronoun.

Group 2: Prefix a, e or o to the inseparable pronoun.

Prefix a if the vowel of the inseparable pronoun is a: prefix e if the vowel of the inseparable pronoun is I; prefix o if the vowel of the inseparable pronoun is u.

Group 3: Prefix o- and suffix –o to the inseparable pronoun.

Group 4: Suffix –ze to the inseparable pronoun.

The demonstratives of Class 1 may be used with all the persons of that class, as yange uno, yetu ava.

As a rule, the demonstrative pronoun follows the noun it modifies, as cifuti cino, muti ou, but sometimes for emphasis it is placed before, as uno muaka, eli litangua. The demonstrative pronoun when used as the subject of a sentence or clause is followed by the inseparable pronoun, as ou a li kuno, eci ca vatuka. Sometimes the verb is understood, as ou muhaza (this is the thief).

If an adjective is used with the demonstrative, then the demonstrative comes before the adjective unless it be desired to emphasize the demonstrative, then it may be placed last. Example: muntu ou ua viuka; cuma ca viuka eci.

Note idiomatic uses of these pronouns with others: yange uno (here am I); ikeye ou vene (this is he himself).

The locative demonstrative pronouns are used as adverbs of time and place.

The Compound Pronoun

Many of the pronouns already mentioned are compound, being made up of different elements, but in this grammar the term “compound” has been reserved for groups that are more complex.

The Compound interrogative Pronoun

This is made up of the inseparable pronoun, plus the verb li, plus the enclitic pronoun. It is equal to the English “where is he (she or it)?”

Class	Singular	Plural
1	uliye	valivo
2	uliuo	iliyo
3	vulivuo	alio
4	lililio	alio
5	luliluo	alio
		zilizio
6	cilico	vilivio
7	iliyo	zilizio
		vilizio
8	kaliko	tulituo
Verbal Noun	cilico
Locatives	halico kulikuo mulimuo

The Compound Demonstrative Pronoun

This group is variously called Reduplicate Demonstratives and Reduplicated Locative Demonstratives. They are reduplicated forms of the simple demonstratives and indicate somewhat more definitely or emphatically the location of the antecedent. For the first position there are two forms. The first is perhaps derived from the Mbunda equivalents, but is so much used by some VaLuchazi that it is included in the table.

Table A: Singular

Class	Group 1	Group 2	Group 3	Group 4	Group 5
1	unoye	youno	you	Youo, yoo	youze
2	unouo	uouno	uou	uouo	uouze
3	vunovuo	vuovuno	vuovu	vuovuo	vuovuze
4	linolio	lielino	lieli	liolio	lielize
5	lunoluo	luoluno	luolu	luoluo	luoluze
6	cinoco	cecino	ceci	coco	cecize
7	inoyo	yeyino	yeyi	yoyo	yeyize
8	kanoko	kakano	kaka	koko	kakaze
Verbal Noun	cinoco	cecino	ceci	coco	cecize
Locative	hanoho kunokuo munomuo	hahano kuokuno muomuno	haha kuoku muomu	hoho kuokuo muomuo	hahaze Kuokuze muomuze

Table B: Plural

Class	Group 1	Group 2	Group 3	Group 4	Group 5
1	vanovo	vavano	vava	vovo	vavaze
2	inoyo	yeyino	yeyi	yoyo	yeyize
3	anoo	anoo	aa	oo	aaze
4	anoo	aano	aa	oo	aaze
5	anoo zinozio	aano ziezino	aa ziezi	oo ziozio	Aaze ziezize
6	vinovio	vievino	vievi	viovio	vievize
7	zinozio vinovio	ziezino vievino	ziezi vievi	ziozio viovio	Ziezize vievize
8	tunotuo	tuotuno	tuotu	tuotuo	Tuotuze

The pronoun in the fourth column, “it is here” is more often used in interrogation with the meaning “Is it there?”

As to the construction of these pronouns:

Group 1. The simple demonstrative “this” plus the enclitic pronoun.

Group 2. The indicative pronoun, plus “this, near” plus suffix –no.

Group 3. Same as Group 2, less suffix –no.

Group 4. The indicative pronoun, plus the simple demonstrative “that”.

Group 5. Same as Group 3, plus the suffix –ze.

The Compound locative Demonstrative Pronoun

The compound demonstrative pronoun unites with certain forms of the locative pronouns to form a Locative Demonstrative.

Note the construction:

1^st Position: the compound demonstrative pronoun “it is here” plus aha, oku and omu.

2^nd Position: the same pronoun plus oho, ok(u)o and om(u)o.

3^rd Position: the compound demonstrative pronoun “it is here” plus aha, oku and omu.

4^th Position: the same pronoun, plus oho, ok(u)o and om(u)o.

As to meaning, this is the same as for the compound demonstrative pronoun with the added definite location of the object. These pronouns are used independently and need no additional word or phrase. They are a sentence in themselves.

Singular - 1st Position

Class
1	youaha	youoku	youomu
2	uouaha	uouoku	uouomu
3	vuovuaha	vouvuoku	vuovuomu
4	lieliaha	lielioku	lieliomu
5	luoluaha	luoluoku	luoluomu
6	ceciaha	cecioku	ceciomu
7	yeyiaha	yeyioku	yeyiomu
8	kakaha	kakoku	kakomu
Verbal Noun	ceciaha	cecioku	ceciomu
Locatives	hahaha kuokuaha muomuaha	hahoku kuokuoku muomuoku	hahomu kuokuomu muomuomu

Singular - 2nd Position

Class
1	youoho	youok(u)o	Youom(u)o
2	uouoho	uouok(u)o	Uouom(u)o
3	vuovuoho	vuovuok(u)o	Vuovuom(u)o
4	lielioho	liekiok(u)o	Lieliom(u)o
5	luoluoho	luoluok(u)o	Luoluom(u)o
6	cecioho	ceciok(u)o	Ceciom(u)o
7	yeyioho	yeyiok(u)	Yeyiom(u)o
8	kakoho	kakok(u)o	Kakom(u)o
Verbal Noun	cecioho	ceciok(u)o	Ceciom(u)o
Locatives	hahoho kuokuoho muomuoho	hahok(u)o kuokuok(u)o muomuok(u)o	hahom(u)o kuokuom(u)o muomuom(u)o

Singular - 3rd Position

Class
1	Yo(u)oaha	Yo(u)oku	Yo(u)omu
2	uouoaha	uouoku	uouomu
3	vuovuoaha	vuovuoku	vuovuomu
4	lioluoaha	liolioku	lioliomu
5	luoluoaha	luoluoku	luoluomu
6	cocoaha	cocoku	cocomu
7	yoyoaha	yoyoku	yoyomu
8	kokoaha	kokoku	kokomu
Verbal Noun	cocoaha	cocoku	cocomu
Locatives	hohoaha kuokuoaha muomuoaha	hohoku kuokuoku muomuoku	hohomu kuokuomu muomuomu

Singular - 4th Position

Class
1	Yo(u)oho	Yo(u)ok(u)o	Yo(u)om(u)o
2	uouoho	Uouok(u)o	Uouom(u)o
3	vuovuooho	Vuovuok(u)o	Vuovuom(u)o
4	liolioho	Lioliok(u)o	Lioliom(u)o
5	luoluoho	Luoluok(u)o	Luoluom(u)o
6	cocoho	Cocok(u)o	Cocom(u)o
7	yoyoho	Yoyok(u)o	Yoyom(u)o
8	kokoho	Kokok(u)o	Kokom(u)o
Verbal Noun	cocoho	Cocok(u)o	Cocom(u)o
Locatives	hohoho kuokuoho muomuoho	Hohok(u)o Kuokuok(u)o Muomuok(u)o	Hohom(u)o Kuokuok(u)o Muomuom(u)o

Plural - 1st Position

Class
1	vavaha	vavoku	vavomu
2	yeyiaha	yeyioku	yeyiomu
3	aaha	aaoku	aaomu
4	aaha	aaoku	aaomu
5	aaha	aaoku	aaomu
	zieziaha	ziezioku	zieziomu
6	vieviaha	vievioku	vieviomu
7	zieziaha	ziezioku	zieziomu
	vieviaha	vievioku	vieviomu
8	tuotuaha	tuotuoku	tuotuomu

Plural - 2nd Position

Class
1	vavoho	Vavok(u)o	Vavom(u)o
2	yeyioho	Yeyiok(u)o	Yeyiom(u)o
3	aaoho	Aaok(u)o	Aaom(u)o
4	aaoho	Aaok(u)o	Aaom(u)o
5	aaoho	Aaok(u)o	Aaom(u)o
	ziezioho	Zieziok(u)o	Zieziom(u)o
6	vievioho	Vieviok(u)o	Vieviom(u)o
7	ziezioho	Zieziok(u)o	Zieziom(u)o
	vievioho	Vieviok(u)o	Vieviom(u)o
8	tuotuoho	Tuotuok(u)o	Tuotuom(u)o

Plural - 3rd Position

Class
1	vovoaha	vovoku	vovomu
2	yoyoaha	yoyoku	yoyomu
3	ooaha	ooku	oomu
4	ooaha	ooku	oomu
5	ooaha	ooku	oomu
	ziozioaha	ziozioku	zioziomu
6	viovioaha	viovioku	vioviomu
7	ziozioaha	ziozioku	zioziomu
	viovioaha	viovioku	vioviomu
8	tuotuoaha	tuotuoku	tuotuomu

Plural - 4th Position

Class
1	vovoho	Vovok(u)o	Vovom(u)o
2	yoyoho	Yoyok(u)o	Yoyom(u)o
3	ooho	Ook(u)o	Oom(u)o
4	ooho	Ook(u)o	Oom(u)o
5	ooho	Ook(u)o	Oom(u)o
	ziozioho	Zioziok(u)o	Zioziom(u)o
6	viovioho	Vioviok(u)o	Vioviom(u)o
7	ziozioho	Zioziok(u)o	Zioziom(u)o
8	tuotuoho	tuotuok(u)o	tuotuom(u)o

The Negative Pronouns

Class	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
	uange	uetu	katiye	kativo	uali	vali	uaye	vavo
	uove	uenu	katiye	kativo	uali	vali	uaye	vavo
1	ueni	uavo	katiye	kativo	uali	vali	uaye	vavo
2	uauo	uayo	katiuo	katiyo	uali	yali	uauo	yayo
3	uavuo	uao	kativuo	katio	vuali	ali	vuavuo	ao
4	ualio	uao	katilio	katio	liali	ali	lialio	ao
5	ualuo	uao uazio	katiluo	katio katizio	luali	ali ziali	lualuo	ao ziazio
6	uaco	uavio	katico	kativio	cali	viali	caco	viavio
7	uayo	uazio uavio	katiyo	katizio Kativio	yali	ziali viali	yayo	ziazio viavio
8	uako	uatuo	katiko	katituo	kali	tuali	kako	tuatuo
Verbal Noun	uaco		katico		cali		caco
Locative	uaho uakuo uamuo		katiho katikuo katimuo		hali kuali muali		haho kuakuo muamuo

In class 1 the pronoun is the same for all persons except in Group 1.

The pronoun of the first group is made up of the negating particle ua plus the possessive pronoun. It means “I (you, he, she, it, they) refuse(s)”. It is used independently or may be used with the antecedent, as citi uaco (the stick refuses to yield to the desire of the workman).

The pronoun of the second group is made up of the negative kati plus the enclitic pronoun. It means “not I (you, he, etc.)” and is used in refusing or denying something, as not being the object desired or intended. With the first two persons of Class 1 the separable and inseparable pronouns must be used. Example: ange nji katiye (I am not the one).

The pronoun of the third group is the past form of the inseparable pronoun plus the verb li. It means “I don’t want it (him, them, that)”. The first two persons must be used with the inseparable pronoun. Example: nji uali (I am not wanted).

The pronoun of the fourth group is the past form of the inseparable pronoun, plus the enclitic pronoun. It means “not that one but another”. It is much the same in the meaning as the pronominal adjective –eka. If used with the first two persons, it must have the separable and inseparable pronouns. Example: yange nji uaye (I am not the one wanted but a different person).
The Locative Possessive

Class	Singular	Plural	singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
	hange	hetu	kuange	kuetu	muange	muetu
	hove	henu	kuove	kuenu	muove	muenu
1	heni	havo	kueni	kuavo	mueni	muavo
2	hauo	hayo	kuauo	kuayo	muauo	muayo
3	havuo	hao	kuavuo	kao	muavuo	muao
4	halio	hao	kualio	kuao	mualio	muao
5	haluo	hao hazio	kualuo	kuao kuazio	mualuo	muao muazio
6	haco	havio	kuaco	kuavio	muaco	muavio
7	hayo	hazio havio	kuayo	kuazio kuavio	muayo	muazio muavio
8	hako	hatuo	kuako	kuatuo	muako	muatuo
Verbal Noun	haco		kuaco		muaco
Locative	haho hakuo hamuo		kuaho kuakuo kuamuo		Muaho Muakuo muamuo

The locative possessives are formed by suffixing the possessive pronoun to the past form of the locative inseparable pronoun. With ha they give the meaning of "at his (its, their) own place" or "in his (its, their) own time. With kua the meaning is "at (or to) his (its) own place." With mua the meaning is "in his own place" or "in his own way."

Idioms with Pronouns

Kaha with the enclitic pronoun means "that is all there is of."
Ngua with the possessive pronoun means "saying" or "said."
Mukua with the possessive pronoun forms "fellow" or "companion." With the inanimate classes it has the meaning of "the other." In the inanimate classes kuavo is the constant and the adjective prefix is the variable.

Class	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
	kahaye	kahavo	nguange	nguetu	mukuetu	vakuetu
	kahaye	kahavo	nguove	nguenu	mukuenu	vakuenu
1	kahaye	kahavo	ngueni	nguavo	mukuavo	vakuavo
2	kahauo	kahayo	nguauo	nguayo	ukuavo	ikuavo
3	kahavuo	kahao	nguavuo	nguao	vukuavo	akuavo
4	kahalio	kahao	ngualio	nguao	likuavo	akuavo
5	kahaluo	kahao	ngualuo	nguao	lukuavo	akuavo
		kahazio		nguazio		zikuavo
6	kahaco	kahavio	nguaco	nguavio	cikuavo	vikuavo
7	kahayo	kahazio	nguayo	nguazio	ikuavo	zikuavo
		kahavio		nguavio		vikuavo
8	kahako	kahatuo	nguako	nguatuo	kakuavo	tukuavo
Verb Noun	kahaco		nguaco		cikuavo
Locative	kahaho kahakuo kahamuo		nguaho nguakuo nguamuo		hakuavo kukuavo mukuavo

The Pronominal -kua

Two forms of this pronominal have been referred to under the Noun and under the Relative Pronoun. But, since it runs the whole gamut of pronominal inflection or declension, it deserves a special table:

Class	Singular	Plural
1	mukua	vakua
2	ukua	ikua
3	vukua	akua
4	likua	akua
5	lukua	akua
		zikua
6	cikua	vikua
7	ikua	zikua
		vikua
8	kakua	tukua
Verb Noun	cikua
Locative	hakua ukua mukua

As to construction, the adjective prefix precedes -kua

With the first two persons of Class 1 it takes the separable and inseparable pronouns. In all other cases only the separable is called for. Examples: Yange nji mukua vusanga; vakevo vakua makuli. It may be used like any noun. Examples: Mukua ngombe neza; nji ka fueta mukua ngombe; va ka vindika vakua zimpata.

As to its use in the impersonal: Proverbs 20: 1, Viniu vikevio vikua ku tomba, via-ku-nua via ku kola vikevio vikua luozi.

The Verb

The verb will be considered under two headings: Inflection by Conjugation and Inflection by Formative Suffixes and Infixes. By Inflection by Conjugation is meant the changes that the verb suffers as to Voice, Mood and Tense. By Inflection by Formative Suffixes and Infixes is meant the modifications wrought in the verb so as to change its primary meaning. These Formal Derivative Species are also inflected by conjugation, receiving identical treatment with the primitive verbs. In many cases the primary verb has disappeared from the language and only the Formal Derivatives is left.

A few general statements about the verb will prove helpful in its study:

1. With the sole exception of the verb li, the present infinitive of all verbs ends in the vowel –a. Examples: ku ya, ku enda, ku panga.

2. There is no inflection to show person or number, that is, the verb remains unchanged for all persons, singular and plural. Examples: nji ya, u ya, a ya, tu ya, mu ya, va ya.

3. Most primary verbs are disyllabic or trisyllabic and the stress accent falls on the penultimate. Some homonyms are distinguished by musical accent and prolonged vowels. There are about two dozen monosyllabic verbs and in these the stress accent falls on the preceding pronoun or particle. Care should be taken to learn the musical accent as some homonyms will even take the musical accent on the preantepenultima. Tenses are also distinguished from one another by musical accent. Tetrasyllabic verbs are common but are stems of radicals.

4. The root, as distinct from the stems of the verb, is invariable. It consists of the first syllable (exclusive of the prefix li-) and all the consonants which immediately follow the vowel. Example: in santsela the root sants while ela is the formative suffix.

5. The termination may change according to the Voice, Mood, Tense and species.

Inflection by Conjugation

Voice

There are four voices in Luchazi: Active, Passive, Middle and Neuter Passive.

The Active voice, as in English asserts that the subject is, does or undergoes something.

The Passive voice is practically missing from the language as only a very few verbs take the passive suffix ua. Ku is the preposition used to show the agent. Examples: a sema muana (she bears a child); muana a semuua ku mpuevo (a child is born by the woman). The native idea of the passive is not in agreement with ours, as in ku lema (to weigh or be be heavy), ku lemuua (to be heavy or feel heavy to the bearer); ku noka (to rain), ku nokoua (to be rained upon, to leak). Many other verbs ending with the passive ua seem to be neuter passive in meaning. The lack of the passive is made up to some extent by the neuter passive. The active voice is used in translating many passive meanings, as “He was beaten by the man” – yala uze ua mu vetele (that is, that man beat him). The third person plural pronoun is used impersonally when no agent is mentioned, as “I was beaten” (va nji vetele).

The Middle Voice is formed by prefixing the particle li-, which the subject is represented as both the agent and the object of the action, as a liveta (he beats himself). It takes all the tenses of the active voice and is often classified as a Formal Derivative Species. This prefix is also Reciprocal. Example: va liveta (they beat one another). Apparently, any transitive verb can be conjugated in the Middle Voice and the intransitive verbs to some extent. Note: lihangunuka (separate oneself); va likungulukile (they gathered themselves together); na litungumuka (he has awakened himself).

The Neuter Passive differs from the Passive in that there is no hint of an agent or an external force. It might be called an absolute form of the passive. Care must be taken not to confuse neuter passive verbs with others of a similar ending. Most trisyllabic and tetrasyllabic verbs ending in –uka, -oka and –ama are neuter passive in meaning. Examples: ku pokoka (to break); ku vatuka (to snap).

Mood

There are at least eight Moods: The Infinitive, Participial, imperative, Conjunctive, Negative, Frequentative, Conditional and Indicative.

The infinitive Mood

The infinitive is characterized by the prefix ku-, corresponding to the English “to”. As already been stated, the simple infinitive ends in –a, with the exception of the verb li. Examples: ku pua, ku panga, ku tavuka, ku tengumuka. Its use as a Verbal Noun has already been noted. Often the infinitive and its object complement may be treated as a verbal Noun. Example: ku-nji-lema cove ca va tanganesa (your loving me has confused them).

The infinitive is also used in the participial form as noted under that mood.

The infinitive may be used for emphasis: ku panga, tua pangele (work, we worked). It is used with or without locative particles as complement of another verb. Example: neza mu ku panga, or neza ku panga (he has come to work). It is used independently in phrases, clauses and sentences. Examples: ku panga cahi (“we are” not to work); ku puisamo cahi (there isn’t enough); cikeco kati ku panga, ku tsa vene (that isn’t work, it is death); ange ku kala kuno ka ci ku tava (for me to stay here is impossible).

The infinitive in ts simple form is used in many tenses, as will be noticed under the indicative mood.

In some tenses the infinitive takes the past perfect form, as in nje ku pangele, nja na ku pangele, etc. These are noted under the infinitive Mood.

With kua and kuana the infinitive forms a kind of double infinitive. Example: nji kua ku ya (I am going to go); nji kuana ku panga (I am going working). In English these are participles. Examples: kuana ku imba ca viuka (to go singing is fine); ua fumine kuze kuana ku longesa mu membo avo; nji hianga kua ku mi mona, etc.

The infinitive may also take a conjunctive ending: ambata lilonga linga mua kuana ku ende nalio (take the plate that you may have it with you as you go).

The Participial Mood

This is formed by prefixing the locatives ha- and ma- and the conjunction na to the different forms of the infinitive. Examples: ha ku ya nja mu muene (going I saw him); mu kuana ku ambulula ua hetele kuimbo lietu (going preaching he reached our village); enu ha ku ci mona ka mua lialuluisile ku mitima (you, beholding it, did not repent); linga enu mu ku mi tungisa mu cilemo, mu kaniame (that you, building yourselves up in love, may be strong); ku heta haze ha na kele, ku uana na I laza (arriving where he had been “I” found that he had already gone). This latter, from the viewpoint of the native language, might be considered the infinitive mood. Examples, with na: ua ile na ku zola (he went laughing), tenses like tu li ku panga, etc., are translated by the participle in English but might well be considered tenses of the infinitive mood. In the following sentence note the participial construction with an adverbial meaning: ha ku manesa nja mu sekuile (in the end I drove him away).

The Imperative mood

The imperative singular of a verb is simply the root infinitive. Examples: ya (go), tala (look), katuka (rise). But if the particle li- is prefixed, or any other particle or pronoun precedes the verb, then the conjunctive form occurs. Examples: lituike (pick up your load), mu vete (beat him).

The imperative plural is formed by dropping the final –a of the verb and suffixing –enu. Examples: pangenu (work ye), nuenu (drink ye). But, as in the singular, if anything precedes the verb, then the suffix is ienu. Examples: litavienu (confess ye), mu kuatienu (catch him). If there be direct and an indirect object, the direct is suffixed to the verb (using the enclitic pronoun), while the indirect is placed before the verb. Examples: nji hieco (give me it), ka nji tuntileye (please run and get him for me).

The English phrasal imperative “let us” is translated by the imperative plural preceded by the personal pronoun tu. Example: tu pangienu (let us work).

For politeness the subjunctive is often used. Example: a ye (may he go), va ka pange (may they work). Other polite forms are made by prefixing ka, a ci, ka ci or va ci to the regular imperative. Examples: a ci nehe, ka ci nehienu, va ci pange, ka pange.

A kind of vocative of the imperative mood has been noted elsewhere, the placing of the vowel e before the verb. Example: e nehienu (oh bring ye!).

The emphatic or intensive form may be used in the imperative, but in the plural imperative only the reduplication is inflected. Example: pangu-pangenu (work ye hard).

For emphasis –e is sometimes substituted for the final –a in the singular, and in the plural, it is suffixed, and in shouting to someone, -eho is often suffixed. Examples: pangé, pangenué (note the musical accent), tuntého, tuntenuého (note stress).

Some special forms of the imperative should be noted: tuaya, tuayenu (come), hamoye, hamenu (go). Also “come” when followed by the subjunctive: tuo u mone (come that you may see), tue mu pange (come that ye may work). The phrasal imperative “let us go”: tua (or tuo) tu ye(nu), tua (ta) ti ye(nu), ta tu ye(nu).

There are other constructions for facility of speech:

Tala – ta, te: example, ta nji pange, te nji pange (watch while [or how] I work).

Mana – mane, ma, me: example, ma nji handeke (wait while I speak).

Tina – tine, ta, ti: example, ti nji mone (get out of my way while I look).

Seza – sa, se: example, sa nji linge ange (leave off and I’ll do it).

Neha – na, ne: na nji mone (bring that I may see), etc.

The Conjunctive Mood

The conjunctive mood is formed by changing the final vowel of the verb stem to –e. The tenses that take the conjunctive will be shown under the Indicative Mood by the letter “c”. In the case of the reduplicated verbs, the monosyllabics only inflect the final while the disyllabics inflect both. Examples: a ya-ya-ye (may he keep on going), a pange-pange (may he keep on working).

The conjunctive has the following uses:

1. Imperative, as already noted under that heading.

2. Interrogative, as nji ye? (May I go?).

3. After the adverb kanda when the thought is “never yet”. Examples: kanda u pange (have you never yet worked), but kanda u panga? (haven’t you begun to work yet?). Kanda u vi mone (have you never before seen anything like these?), but kanda u vi mona (haven’t you seen these yet?).

4. Prohibitive after the negative: kati. Examples: kati mu tave (don’t assent); kati mu ka ye (ye shall not go or don’t go).

5. Obligatory, as lelo a pange (today he shall work).

6. Permissive, as u ye kuimbo (you may go to the village).

7. The subjunctive is used to express an act which is intended to follow another. The subjunctive always follows the imperative and always follows the subordinating conjunctions linga, mangana, amba (when future) and sometimes kaha, as panga ovio kaha u ka tambule (do those things and then you will receive – be paid).

The Negative mood

The negative conjugation is considered a mood by many grammarians. As the negative mood is the same as the indicative in the most tenses (except for the negative particle), only the differing tenses will be given here, and the others will be indicated by an “N” under the Indicative Mood.

The negative mood is formed by prefixing the particle ka- to the indicative tense. In the case of monosyllabic and disyllabic verbs certain inflections occur in certain tenses. These are noted below:

Note the coalescence or elision in the third person singular.

The negative form of the verb li (used only in the present) is esi, and this coalesces with the pronoun (and in third person singular with the negative particle) to form ka njesi, ka uesi, kesi, ka tuesi, ka muesi, ka vesi.

In the future it is also correct to use the root infinitive form, as ka nji ka nua, ko u ka nua, ka ka nua, etc.

Disyllabic verbs:

In the future it is also correct to use the root infinitive. Note the “vowel mutation” in the negative of the second person singular. The impersonal pronouns are never elided. Examples: ka pangele (he did not work), but ka ca vatukile (it did not snap).

It is very important to learn the correct forms of the monosyllabic and disyllabic verbs in the negative conjugation as this same form is also used in two tenses of the indicative mood. The monosyllabics drop the final –a of the diphthong, and the verbs ca, ha, sa, and ta change the final –a to –e (thus ce, he, se, te). Ya becomes i, hia (to give) becomes hie, and tsa becomes tsi.

For the disyllabic verbs there seems to be no definite rule as to the ending but there is some tendency to change the final vowel to make it agree with the root vowel. Note hake, zeye, soko, hiti, tungu. An actual count of nearly six hundred disyllabics revealed that about 50% of the verbs having the root vowel a or e would retain the final –a and the other 50% changed to –e; 60% of the verbs having the root i would take a final –i, while the other 40% retain the final –a; 65% of the verbs having the root vowel o or u would take a final –o or –u, while the other 35% retain the final –a. As there are some seven or eight hundred disyllabic verbs, it is best to learn this ending when learning the verb. As the Luchazi and Mbunda languages disagree at times, care is needed.

The suffixing of the enclitics to the past form of the verb causes a change in the dynamic and musical accents. The stress accent moves to the penultimate and a musical accent is given to the accented vowel of the simple form of the verb. Example: ka nja tuvakánenéko. Even when there is no enclitic, a musical accent is given to the primary vowel. There is a musical accent even in the present tense. Examples: nji hása, njí hása, nja haséle, ka nja háséle, ka nja háseléko.

The conjunctive mood also takes the negative conjugation. Examples: ka nji kave, ka nji ka tave. There is a subtle difference between ka nji kava and ka nji kave. The former seems to mean the immediate present, while the latter makes it more indeterminate and the future.

Kati may be used as a negating particle with some tenses with which it would be wrong to use ka. Example: kati nji na handeka (didn’t I speak?). Kati with prohibitive sense has been noted under the conjunctive mood. Kati is also used in absolute phrases. Examples: kati cange (not mine), kati ngecize (not thus), kati via vindende (not a few, not a little).

The Frequentative Mood

This mood describes habitual action, which is usual, like the English “to be wont to, to be in the habit of, to do usually”.

Note that the frequentative past is exactly the same in form as the immediate future of the indicative mood. The difference lies in the musical accent.

The Conditional Mood

This mood is not equal to the English conditional but might possibly be used to translate “would have” and “should be” in the sense of latent possibility. It seems rather to express “I was about to; I was on the point of”.

With antsa ka (abbreviation of ngantsa ka) a conditional is formed, “wouldn’t have”. Example: antsa ka nja muene nga na pitileko (wouldn’t I have seen him if he had passed by?). Also, with kasimbu. Example: ove ua Yesu, kasimbu ka ile nove (if you had been a Christian, wouldn’t he have taken you with him?).

The conditional is the most frequently expressed by the repetition of nga (if) before the independent and dependent clauses. Example: nga nja mu muene, nga nja mu heleco (if I had seen him, I would have given him it).

Another conditional-potential construction is made by a reduplication of the pronoun in two consecutive verbal phrases. Examples: zize ka zia mu pandele ku zi lia (he shouldn’t have eaten those); va linga evi ka vi tava ku vi linga (they do that which shouldn’t be done). Some form of panda or tava is used in this construction. The above examples are all negative, but they may be used positively as well.

The Indicative Mood

The tenses that are used in the conjunctive and negative moods will be indicated by the letters “C” and “N” after the name of the tense. Those that take the negative conjunctive will be marked with an additional “NC”. The nomenclature used is an attempt to describe the approximate value as to time, but it must not be regarded as limiting or conclusive. The natives love litigation and perhaps the tenses are conceived with the intent of being ambiguous and even equivocal. Thus, the language lends itself to oratorical rhetoric without definite committal.

It would be helpful to the student to read the notes on “The Auxiliary Verb and Particles” appended at the end of the Indicative mood.

The third person singular personal pronoun is dropped in all tenses beginning with na or ne but reoccurs after the positive indicative pronoun.

These two tenses seem almost identical in the meaning, but the latter seems to carry with it more of indefiniteness and futurity. These tenses seldom have the idea of immediate or present action, but rather of present possibility. The one is simple in structure, the other infinitive in structure. The simple present is seldom used except in the conjunctive, negative and negative conjunctive moods. For the negative, see that mood.

This is named the premier present because it often gives the idea of the action as taking place first and then something else following. Example: nji ci ku manesa eci amba nji ku ya (I am going to finish this first, then afterwards I shall go). The two tenses seem identical in meaning but the former is more indefinite.

The Incomplete Present

There are three variations of this tense and there seems to be no difference in meaning. It might be the literal present, as it seems to denote an action which may have started in the past and is going on to its completion in the present. But sometimes it may signify an action as just starting and which the actor intends to carry through to completion.

The Present Progressive

This tense is the same in form as the incomplete present, without the tense particle ci. It has the same three forms. In meaning it seems equal to the English present progressive. It is more indefinite than the incomplete present.

(N)˚ see Negative Mood for negative form of li.

The Present Continuative

The meaning of this tense seems to be “going on doing”. The two forms seem identical in meaning. There may be some delicate shade to be discovered.

The Definite Present Continuative

“I am still going on doing” (long duration) seems to be the value of this tense. It always indicates an action as started in the past and continuing without a break in the present.

The Present Prefect

The endings of the monosyllabic and disyllabic verbs in this tense are the same as in the present of the Negative Mood, which mean see.

This tense represents an action as completed at the time referred to, as “I have seen”. When a neuter passive is used in this tense, as ci na vatuka, it may be translated “it is snapped, it has happened, it has become snapped; nji na zimbala can be translated “I am lost, or I have become lost”.

The Immediate Past

This describes an action which has just happened and may still be in process of being carried out. The monosyllabic and disyllabic verbs change as per rule laid down under the negative mood.

The Indefinite Medium Past Perfect

This describes an action as completed in the medium past without relation to anything else. This tense is distinguished from the homonyms of the Immediate Past by the musical accent. Example: njá vavála – nja vavála (immediate past).

The Definite Past Perfect

Describes an action as having occurred in relation to another event. Note that the third person singular is the same for both forms. The two forms seem the same in meaning.

The Imperfect Past

Describes an action as begun in the past and not yet completed.

The Continuing Past

Very much the same in meaning as the imperfect past, but more definite as to the action. The difference lies in the musical accent.

The indefinite Past

Describes an action as having been completed in the indefinite past. With the adverb laza it may express the past perfect. Example: omo vembile laza muaso, va tuhukile (when they had sung a song they went out.

This tense follows a definite law of harmony of vowels and consonants, as follows:

1. The final vowel of the stem, -a, is dropped, and verbs having a, e, or o as the accented vowel of the stem, add ele. Verbs having i or u as the accented vowel of the stem, add ile.

2. If an m or n (not followed by another consonant) occurs in the final syllable, the suffix is ene or ine as per above vowel agreement.

3. Verbs of three or more syllables ending in ola change to uele; verbs of three or more syllables ending in ula change to uile; verbs of three or more syllables ending in ona change to uene; verbs of three or more syllables ending in una change to uine.

4. In monosyllabics the root vowel is the first of the diphthong. Some are irregular: tia – tiele; hia (give) – hele; hia (be ripe) – hile; tsa – tsile; ya – ile. Li has no past form, being used only in the present. Some disyllabics are also irregular: ivua – vuile; iziva – zivile; mana (stand) – mene; kala – kele; mona – muene. Some disyllabics are reduplicative. Example: lele (nurse) – lelelele; also, all the relative species of the monosyllabics: sila – sililile; sela – selelele; tela – telelele; uila – uililile, etc. The past form of tsiliela is usually tsililielele, but some tsilielele.

In all other tenses and moods where the past form of a verb is called for, it follows the above rules.

The Definite Past Perfect

This seems to indicate an action as being completed at a definite past time.

The Indefinite Past Progressive

Represents an action still going on in the past in relation to another action.

The Definite Past Progressive

Note that the third person singular of the two forms is the same. This tense shows an action still going on at a definite time in relation to another action.

The Emphatic Past

Meaning “I did work”.

The Perfect Progressive

Meaning “I have been working”.

The Past Imperfect Continuative

The conjunctive form of this, nja kuana ku pange, has a future meaning.

The Near Distant Continuative

This tense seems to mean “I went doing”. The second form may carry the thought of greater prolongation.

The Very Distant Past Continuative

Seems to mean “I went doing long, long ago”.

The Extensive Continuative

Carries the idea of extension as to time and place.

The Past Infinitive

Gives the thought of a definite past action. See Ezek. 33: 22.

The Present Progressive Definite

This tense differs from the three forms of the present progressive in that it describes an action that is actually going on and is continuing. See Jere. 5: 28.

The Simple Future

It is simple in form but rather indefinite in meaning. The sense seems promissory or determinative. Especially when ka is accented does it seem expressive of purpose.

The Immediate Future

States that which is to take place immediately or almost so.

The Near Future

This is more distant than the immediate future.

The Determinate Future

States that which is sure to be.

The Continuing Determinate Future

States that which is determined unchanged.

The Premier Near Future

States that which will be done first, before something else. The second form carries the force of early action.

The Medium Distant Future

This tense is very common in ordinary speech. Example: mu a li ka fua Muana muntu.

The Distant Future

These tenses are both very common in ordinary speech. The first has more the thought of immediacy than the second, while the second is more determinative.

The Definite Future

States that which will surely be done. Kuana gives it a progressive meaning.

The Near Perfect Future

Seems to mean that the action will have been completed in the near future. Something like the English: “I shall have gone”.

The Distant Future Perfect

Seems to be the same in meaning as the near perfect future, but more indefinite as to time.

The Auxiliary Verbs and Particles

Ku is the infinitive tense particle.

Ka signifies the indefinite future as to time but seems determinative as to the action itself.

Ka has another usage which must not be confused with the future. It is often inserted in tenses to show that the action took place elsewhere, in another location, or at a definite location referred to. Examples: nja ka talele (I looked – there); ua ile ku ka liuana neni (he went to meet him – there). There is no exact translation into English.

Kua, undoubtedly a contraction of ku ya, denotes specific action or a future of intention.

Kuana may be a contraction of ku ya na, but if so, its past tenses seem somewhat contradictory to this sense. It seems to mean that the action is already progressing and will continue.

The verb li indicates present action or occurrence. It may be omitted in elliptical usage. Example: kati nji mukua ku tuka (I am not a reviler). Its negative form has been noted, ka njesi ku laako (I am not far away).

Lia seems determinative, that which is purposed and will be done.

Na seems to indicate definiteness of action that it is actually happening or has actually happened.

Ne presents the action as being on the point of, or about to be or almost done.

Ci designates continuity of action, the English “still”.

Ca is a perfect form which seems to denote futurity.

Kala is used in a variety of ways. With the conjunction na, it forms a number of tenses:

1. Present perfect progressive: na kala na ku tunta (he has been running).

2. Past progressive: nja kele na ku panga (I was working). The English “was” can thus be translated by kele or kele na.

Kala is much used with nouns to state that which is characteristic: ua kala luozi (he is pugnacious); ua kala zimpata (he is a doubter or contrary fellow).

Hianga is used to indicate that which is about to happen or near to happening. Examples: ua hiangele ku tsa (he was on the verge of death); a hianga ku ua (he is about to fall); vi ka hianga ku sololoka (they are about to appear).

Panda indicates the obligative mood. Examples: nja pande ku ya (I must go); u na pande ku panga (you must work).

Hutikila, hutikiya and hitukila express the thought of incumbency, being one's obligation or responsibility. Examples: via ku hutikila (they are your obligation).

Pua, kala and li

Pua means "be" as to state or condition, and may be translated "become".

Kala means "be" in the sense of "abide" but translates practically all uses of the English verb.

Kala and li, followed by the conjunction na express "have". Kala is the substitute for li in all tenses but the present.

Li is the ordinary verb for "be" in the present tenses. It is omitted before a noun or noun phrase, as ange nji muntu, ove u muntu, ikeye muntu (in the third person singular and plural, the inseparable pronoun is not used). But if the locative pronoun is used then the li is retained, as ku li muntu (there is a person there). Li is always used before adjectives, adverbs, infinitives and participial phrases. Examples: a li mua muha; a li viuno; a li ku enda; nji li ha ku ya.

Miscellaneous notes on verbs

Fua (seem to be) is generally used with the preposition ngue or the conjunction na, but may be used independently. Examples: mu a fua; mu a na fu; ua fuile ngue mukua sanda; ya fuile ngue ya indende.

Mana (stand) is irregular; past tense (mene). It is distinguished from the regular verb mana (finish) by a musical accent: nja mana, or nji na mana (I am standing); nja mane, or nji na mane (I have finished).

Kesi has a peculiar idiomatic usage which almost amounts to a tense. Note the following: kesi njezile, or, kesi njeza (I shall continue coming in the future as I have in the past). Scores of such idioms make the language more difficult but the real student will benefit greatly by acquiring them.

Note unusual contractions sometimes met with: vele (va ile); izeza (iza-iza); va nezeza (va na iza-iza); endendenu (enda endenu).

Inflection by formative suffixes and infixes

According to the suffix or infix the verbs have been divided into a large number of verbal derivative species. Every verb, with the exception of li, may be inflected by suffixes or infixes to form new verbs with a special meaning. Very few verbs, if any, take all the suffixes, but every verb takes more than one. There are a number of suffixes that occur very seldom and may be without particular significance today, but may once have exerted an influence in the language. Further study may reveal new features. The suffixes are called "stem" by some grammarians.

It may be that all primary verbs were monosyllabic or disyllabic. If this supposition be true, then all trisyllabic verbs are derivatives. Primary verbs may have been lost through disuse. Many that are not used in Luchazi, occur in neighbouring languages which gives some proof to this theory. From existing trisyllabic forms one may conjecture what the primary word may have been. A few verbs are derived from onomatopoetic vocables, as ndikangela, from ndi or ndika (to walk heavily, clump, clump). In the case of a vast majority of verbs, though, the question is whether the onomatopoetic adverb is the root or the derivative, as ku vatuka (to snap, as a string); vatu (snap). Is the adverb vatu derived from vatuka or vice versa?

The causative species

This species is identified by a suffix which indicates causation, that is, the action or state expressed by the verb is caused by the subject. It is formed by dropping the final -a of the verb stem and adding suffixes in accordance with the laws of vowel harmony as explained under the indefinite Past Tense, viz.:

esa if the accented vowel of the verb stem is a, e or o;

isa if the accented vowel of the verb stem is i or u;

Trisyllabic and polysyllabic verbs ending in:

ola or ona drop this ending and add uesa;

ula or una drop this ending and add uisa.

A few verbs form the causative with eka and ika, as zemba - zembeka; enia -enieka; tuama - tuameka; suama - suameka; zuama - zuameka.

The causative may sometimes have a passive meaning, as u nji tsihisa ku ndumba (you cause me to be killed by the lion); u nji ivisa viange (you cause my things to be stolen).

The causative verbs may have an instrumental meaning, as citi ca ku vetesa kanike (a stick for beating the child); vuta vua ku tsihisa ndumba (a gun for killing the lion).

A few causative verbs have a reflexive meaning: takamesa, kolesa, kaniamesa (strengthen yourself; be strong).

Irregular verbs are mona - muesa; ivua - vuisa; kala - kesa; mana (stand) - mesa; hula - huisa.

Auxiliary. The above species has another meaning than "causation", that of being "auxiliary". This might be classified as another derivative, but as it is identical in form it would seem unnecessary. Examples: na tsisa yalieni (she has been bereaved of her husband); na lilisa muana (she has taken care of the crying child); nja mu kamuisa ngombe (I helped him milk the cow).

This auxiliary species may also signify mere attendance or presence. Examples: nja mu zavuisile; ua mu zavekesele muandza; tu na lahuisa, cesa or tokesa, litangua, etc.

The indirect causative. This is a reduplicative form of causative, the causation being brought about indirectly through a medium. Examples: lelo va na tu pakesesa (today they have abused us); na tu pangesesa (he has used us to work).

The transitive and intransitive verb

Some grammarians hold that these are a separate species but that is not quite true, as they belong to more than one species. The transitive endings ola, ona, ula and una have been noted above. These may be made intransitive in most cases by changing the l or n to k, as ovola - ovoka; tongonona - tongonoka; tavula - tavuka; sempununa - sempunuka. It will be noted that the intransitive form is passive neuter. The transitive meaning is very similar to the causative. Examples: zavuka (cross a river); zavula (ferry across); zavukisa (cause to cross); zavuisa (help cross).

The prepositional or applied species

Also called relative, directive and applicative. This species supplies the need for prepositions and is similar to the Latin dative and ablative.it indicates that the action or state expressed by the verb is related to its object, or is done in the direction of the object. It may be variously translated by "for, on behalf of, to, at, with, because of," etc.

It is formed by dropping the final -a of the verb stem and adding the suffixes in accordance with the laws of harmony, viz.:

ela if the accented vowel of the stem be a, e, or o;

ila if the accented vowel of the stem be I or u.

If there be an m or n (not followed by another consonant) in the final syllable, the suffix is ena or ina as per above vowel agreement.

Trisyllabic and tetrasyllabic verbs ending in:

ola, drop this and add uela;

ula, drop this and add uila;

ona, drop this and add uena;

una, drop this and add uina.

Examples: nji na mu tandela mukanda (I have read the letter to him); nji na mu vetela vuhuke vueni (I have beaten him because of his wantonness); nji na mu pangela (I have worked for him); ngandza eyi nje ku nuinamo (I am wont to drink out of this cup).

The prepositional is often used with the interrogative pronoun. Example: vika u na lingila zimpata? (Why have had doubt?), or with another pronoun, examples, nkala limbo li mu kengila (whatever village you may enter); aha ha va kela hahi (there was no place where they might stay).

Sometimes the causative has a prepositional meaning, as handekesa (speak to); tumisa (send to). Irregular forms are vuila, mena, muena, kela, huila.

The intensive, Emphatic or Continuative species

The love of emphasis finds ample scope in this species. It expresses action of long duration, continuance of action or its repetition.

Monosyllabic verbs are thrice repeated and the second verb takes the stress accent. Examples: ku ya-ya-ya (to keep on going); ku lia-lia-lia (to keep on eating; to eat and eat and eat).

Disyllabic verbs are twice repeated and the second verb takes the strong stress accent. Examples: ku enda-enda; ku panga-panga.

Trisyllabic and polysyllabic verbs have a vowel inserted either before or after the principal vowel, viz.:

If the principal vowel is a or e, an i is inserted before;

If the principal vowel is i, an e is inserted after;

If the principal vowel is o, a u is inserted before;

If the principal vowel is u, an o is inserted after, or may displace the u. The diphthong thus formed is ia, ie or uo.

Examples: handieka, sitieka, tambuoka, halakiana.

The vowels may be inserted in the past form of the verb and be reduplicated in each formative suffix. Examples: kutisa (help tie), kutiesa (continue helping tie), kutisiele (helped tie), kutisiela, kutiesiela (in the last two examples note the change in the prepositional ending due to change of accented vowel).

Another way of showing emphasis is to repeat the verb and change the final vowel to long e. Example: nja pangele-pange. Any verb may change its final vowel to long e to show emphasis. Example: ambulule, etc.

The Repetitive species

This shows the action as being repeated and, though closely allied to the intensive species, should be distinguished from it. Examples, repetitive: ku tetanga (to cut [the same object] in pieces); intensive: ku teta-teta (to keep on cutting one thing after another).

Some disyllabic verbs suffix nga to the verb stem while others take ngela. The latter is a combination of nga and the prepositional suffix -ela, giving the repeated action a directive meaning. Examples: tuva (pierce), tuvanga (pierce again and again), liata (stamp on), liatangela (stamp on again and again).

The suffix -ngana is another modified form of nga, and stems to indicate repetition over an extended area. Examples: hita (pass), hitangana (pass back and forth); enda (walk), endangana (walk hither and thither).

Trisyllabic verbs drop the final syllable and tetrasyllabic verbs drop the last two syllables and take the suffix ziola (intransitive zioka). Examples: tavula (split, or tear), tavuziola (split or tear again and again); ambulula (tell or report), ambuziola (tell or report over and over again); vatuka (snap), vatuzioka (snap again and again). The suffix ziala seems to have the same meaning. Example: sangala (praise), sangaziala (praise over and over again). Zieka is another repetitive suffix. Example: lundika (pile up), lundazieka (pile up high).

There are irregular forms, such as tala - tazela, taziela; mbila - mbiziela; tila - tiziela.

The Reversive or Inversive Species

Also called contradictory. It indicates that the primary meaning of the verb is reversed. It can only be used with certain verbs. Some disyllabic verbs drop the final -a and add -olola if the accented vowel be o, and -onona if there be also an m or n in the stem, following the accented vowel. If the accented vowel be u, the suffix is ulula, or ununa if there be an, m or n following the accented vowel. Examples: kuta (tie), kutulula (untie); soka (shut), sokolola (open); zenga (twist, wind), zengununa (untwist, unwind); zemba, zembununa; saka, sakulula; kaya, kayulula; etc.

But a large number of verbs ending in eka or ika drop these endings and add -ula (-una if there be an m or n following the accented vowel), but if there be an o in the stem, the ending becomes -ola (or -ona). These reversives may be made intransitive by substituting k for the final l or n of the suffix. Examples: tombeka, tombola; someka, somona; pateka, patula; sukika, sukula. Kuta takes kutulula and kutununa. The reversive of zambeya is zambulula.

The Iterative Species

This is similar in form to the reversive and in meaning is similar to the repetitive, but while the repetitive simply states an action as being repeated in the same manner, the iterative represents the action being redone with thought of improvement.

The basic suffixes are -olola, -onona, -ulula and -ununa, according to the laws of the vowel and consonant agreement as under the reversive, but the suffix is often modified by the addition of the prepositional species to give it a directive meaning, so as to redo in between or among that already done. Examples: komba (sweep), kombolola (resweep); tanga (create), tangulula (recreate); linga (do), lingulula (redo); tunga (build), tungulula (rebuild); kuna (plant seed), kununuina (plant seed in between that already planted); lima (hoe), limunuina (hoe between that already hoed); futula (move back or away), futulula (move further away).

The Stative Species

This expresses a state, position or attitude. It is formed by dropping the suffixes -eka and -ika, and adding the suffix -ama in the case of trisyllabic verbs, and the suffix -ana in the case of tetrasyllabic. Many of the stative forms have no corresponding form in the transitive, showing that the latter has been lost. Examples: sitika (insert), sitama (be inserted); tengeka (set on a slant), tengama (be set on a slant); fulumika (turn upside down), fulumana (be upside down).

It will be noted that the stative verbs are neuter passive in meaning. Mena is a stative-prepositional combination giving the stative directional meaning.

The Tendentious Species

Several score of verbs take a suffix showing tendency of movement relative to the state, position or attitude specified by the stative. The suffix is -umuna (intransitive: -umuka), but if the accented vowel be o, then the suffix is -omona (intransitive: omoka). Examples: sangama (be amiable), sangumuna (irritate, provoke); sungama (be straight), sungumumuna (desert, turn aside).

The Extensive Species

The suffix avala gives the idea of extension, length or breadth, as being spread out or stretched out. Examples: zandzavala (be broad, wide); tandavala (climb or spread as a vine); kuluvala (grow old, of long duration).

The Operative Species

The suffix -veka is operative, that is, it exerts force or influence in order to produce a certain effect. The result of the action is the extensive species. Example: zandzaveka (widen), zandzavala (be wide); salaveka (incline gradually, as a person stooping over with age), salavala (stoop with age).

The Stationary Species

The suffix -mana seems to carry out the thought of being stationary in its state, condition or attitude and may therefore be looked upon as a modification of the stative. Examples: futumana, fulumana (be ugly, unpleasant to sight); vungumana (be cramped).

The Correlative Species

The suffixes -akana and -asana suggest a mutual interdependence of action and complementary relation. Examples: pandakana (add, put things together); landakana or landasiana - not infix (exchange one thing for another); pulakana or pulasiana (go through, one thing through another).

The Completive Species

The suffixes -elela, -enena, -ilila and -inina added to the root of the verb give the meaning of bringing the action to completion or to a high degree. The endings are reduplications of the prepositional species. Examples: viuka - viukilila; komba - kombelela; soka - sokelela; ovola - ovolola. Note the ovola in accordance with laws of vowel harmony. Mbiziela, the completive of mbila, is irregular.

The Ablative Species

The suffixes -uka and -oka suggest a coming out of the state, condition or position indicated by the simple verb. From this species one may infer the meaning of extinct verbs:

Soka (shut in); sokoka (come out of that which closed it in).

Pata (bar in); patuka (come out of that in which it was barred).

Zika (close up an opening); zikuka (come out of that into which it was put).

The Applicative Species

The suffixes -eka and -ika suggest the reverse of the ablative species. While the ablative suggests a coming out, the applicative suggests the placing of the thing referred to in a position, or under such a condition, that would bring about the state suggested by the simple verb, that is, to place in or on, to place together, to place in contact with. The suffixes -eya, -iya, -meka, and -mika seem to be of similar meaning.

Soka (shut in); sokeka (place or put into).

Pata (bar in); pateka (put into that which will hold it).

Zika (close up); zikika (put into an opening so as to close).

The Potential Species

This species expresses ability or capacity to do that which is expressed by the simple verb:

Suma (bite); sumana (be capable of biting). Example: katali ou a sumana.

Tuka (revile, or insult); tukana (be capable of reviling if things don't please).

Singa (place a curse on); singana (be capable of placing a curse on).

Lia (eat); liana (be capable of eating, that is, be poisonous).

Tuva - tuvana; pula - pulana, etc.

The Oscillatory Species

This species is a reduplicated intensive and expresses movement that is constant, that is, movement that changes repeatedly, back and forth. It is formed by reduplicating the infixes in the suffixes muka, nuka and luka. The change is made through the medium of moka, noka and loka to a final form of mioka, nioka and lioka. Examples: hungumuka (float), hungumioka (float back and forth); sungumuka (become alienated in affections), sungumioka (be inconstant in affections).

The transitive suffixes are miona, niona and liola. These endings seem the same in meaning with ziola and zioka. Examples: tongonona (rip stitches), tongoniona (constantly rip stitches); songonona (sprain), songoniona (sprain constantly).

Various Unclassified suffixes

The suffixes ngola, ngona, ngula and nguna seem to indicate to twist or turn over or around.

Zala or ziala seems a kind of intensive, as has already been mentioned, and seems to show continuity of action or action in many directions.

Lala appears to mean "of small degrees, to a small extent". Examples: henga (be crooked), hengalala (be slightly crooked).

The suffixes vola and vula are a kind of ablative species. They show movement out of the state suggested by the suffix vala.

Many compound forms may be made up from all these species. The combinations seem almost limitless. Care should be taken to distinguish forms that may be similar in structure and yet different in meaning. Example: sanduuele and sanduuela from sanduola, intensive form of sandula; and semuuile and semuila from semuua, passive form of sema. Other suffixes that may be resolved into derivative species are: na, ya, nia and ta.

Verbs with Adjuncts

There are several verbs that take adjuncts giving idiomatic meanings:

Ku tsa cizava (to faint with hunger). Vizava if the subject is plural.

Ku tsa cintsima (to be petrified with fear).

Ku tsa mpuila (to feel faint with thirst).

Ku tsa ndzandzavuta (to become unconscious).

Ku kovela vuhuke (to act wantonly).

Ku kovela zimpata (to be contrary).

Ku linga luozi (to fight).

Ku linga kapopolozi (to depreciate, deride, belittle).

Ku kola vuoma (to fear, be afraid).

Ku kola ntsoni (to be ashamed).

Ku ivua ndzala (to be hungry).

Ku ivua mema ku mutima (to be compassionate).

Ku uma mutima (to worry).

Ku ya ku mutima (to please).

Ku lava ku mutima (to be offended, be hurt).

Ku zika mutima (to rely on, trust in).

Ku zika mutima (to be injudicious, be unwise).

Ku lua mutima (to agonize).

The Adjective

Pure adjectives are very few in number and their lack is largely supplied by other parts of speech. As has already been mentioned under the Alliterative Concord, some adjectives take both the copula and the adjective prefix, while others take only the copula or only the adjective prefix.

1. Used with the copula and the adjective prefix:

-a -asi (easy),

-a -ha, also -a -hia, -a -hua (new),

-a -ihi, also -a ihihi (short),

-a -ingi (many, much),

-a -kalu (difficult),

-a -hehu, or -a -lelu (light, in weight),

-a -ndende (small, little, few),

-a -pi (bad, evil, ugly),

-a -mpahu (good, gracious),

-a -kala (good, pretty, fine).

2. Used with the copula only:

-a vusu, also -a vuvusu (green, unripe, raw),

-a cili (good, right, true),

-a ngoco (bad, useless, worthless),

-a kama (big, large, great),

-a laha (long, high, tall)

-a mbala (another's)

-a ndi, also -a vua (full).

-a to (white, empty).

-a keke (cool, cold).

-a cihululu, also cahululu, hululu (open

-a cau (dry).

-a mutuntu (entire, whole),

-a mupulungua (empty),

-a laza (old, past),

-a mavokovoko, also mavokovoko (empty-handed),

-a ndzua, also -a ndzualala, ndzualala (clean, pure, bright, clear),

-a makamaka (hairy),

-a zau (yesterday) etc.

Some of the above, it will be noticed, are onomatopoetic particles. These particles may be used to make adjectives, example -a tufu-tufu, also -a foti-foti, -a foyo-foyo, -a huoti-huoti (soft, fluffy).

3. Used with the adjective prefix only:

-lema (heavy),

-ose (all, every),

-kuavo (another),

-eka (other, different),

-mo, also -mosi, -mosa, -moya (some, any),

-ahi (nothing, no),

-ka (which, what),

-ngahi (how many),

-sasu (bitter, poisonous).

Any verb may be used as an adjective by connecting the infinitive form to the noun modified by means of the copula. Example: muntu ua ku pihia (a bad person, an evil person). In case of a few verbs the infinitive particle has been dropped, as muntu ua kama (a big person), muntu ua laha (a tall person). The verbs indicating the primary colours are used with the adjectival prefixes and should therefore be written as one word with the prefix unless one regard them as idiomatic expressions, thus muntu mu lava or muntu mulava (black person); citi ci vuka or citi civuka (white stick).

The adjective may also be expressed by a dependent clause, as citi ca polo ci li kuno, or citi ci na polo ci li kuno (the rotten stick is here).

Nouns may be used as adjectives by the use of the copula. Example: muntu ua mangana (a wise man).

The locative nouns and adverbs may be used in the same way. Examples: vitenga via ha mbandza (the outside things), njila ya (ku) cilio (the right-hand path), -a lelo, -a ku lutue, -a ku nima, etc.

An adjective may be translated by more than one part of speech. Examples: cana ca ku zela mema (a waterless plain), muntu ua ku zela ngozi (a merciless person).

Vene may be used as an adjective. Examples: ovio vene (those very things), yange vene, yove vene, etc.

With the locatives: mua muasi (it is easy), mua mukalu (it is hard), mua muingi (in many ways), mua muha (in a new manner), mueka (in a different manner). An adverbial implication is to be noted in the use of these adjectives with the locatives.

Irregular uses of the adjective: cifuti ci laako (a far country).

Adjectives may be used as nouns: va vengi va liko (many are there); va vandende va neza (a few have come). They may be used independently in an absolute construction. Examples: ca cihi (it is short); via vindende (they are few).

For emphasis, to show quantity, the adjective is repeated in part or in its entirely. Examples: va vengi-vengi (very many), va vandendendende (very few). When the whole is repeated, a hyphen is used, but when only a part is repeated, the reduplicated adjective is written as one word.

The Cardinal Numbers

The VaLuchazi, as a rule, count from one to five and then add the lower digits to the five until ten (which is a noun) is reached. Then the multiples of ten are used until one hundred, and then the multiples of a hundred until a thousand is reached.

The cardinal numerals from one through five are adjectives and take the adjective prefixes of the nouns they modify, but not the copula. Ten, hundred and thousand are nouns. If they are used after a noun, they do not take the copula, as vangombe likumi (ten head of cattle). If they are used before the noun, the noun is treated as subordinate to the numeral and is connected to it by the copula of the numeral, as likumi lia vangombe.

Care should be taken in counting to use the proper alliterative concord. It becomes somewhat complicated in the higher numbers, as viti makumi atanu na limo na vitanu na cimo (66 sticks). Often the five is repeated, as makumi atanu na limo na vitanu, vitanu na cimo. Note that the multiples of ten take the alliterative concord of ten, while the digits take the alliterative concord of the noun referred to.

ten, while the digits take the alliterative concord of the noun referred to.

Sometimes you may hear sokeke (plural, masokeke) used for ten. Also kumi for likumi.

The western branches of the Ngangela-speaking people use the following cardinal numbers, perhaps borrowed and modified from the Ovimbundu and Achokwe:

6 = pandu, sambano.

7 = panduvali, sambali.

8 = cinana, nake.

9 = cela, liua.

100 = cita.

1000 = kanunu.

The Ordinal Numbers

The ordinal numbers are not much used beyond five, and beyond five consist of the cardinals added to five or ten and its multiples. The ordinals are formed by the copula of the word modified, plus the invariable particle mu, plus ci- prefixed to the basic numeral.

Note that the added cardinal agrees with the noun modified in its prefix and when the cardinal shows more than "one" it takes the plural adjective prefix of the noun modified.

Fractionals

To show fractions one usually says "one out of so many". Examples: cimo ku vitanu na vitatu (one out of eight); cimo ku likumi (one of ten). Another way of expressing the fraction is by prefixing mu- to the cardinal number. Examples: teta mutatu (cut into thirds); vatula muvali (split into halves). This latter form is properly adverbial.

Multiplicatives

An adverbial form is also used for the multiplicatives. The adjective prefix is lu-. Examples: lumo (once), luvali (twice), lutatu (thrice), luuana (four times), lutanu (five times), lutanu na lutatu (eight times).

Comparison of Adjectives

Degrees of comparison do not exist as grammatical forms. There are ways, however, of expressing comparison. Usually the only difference between the comparative and the superlative degrees lies in the numbers compared.

By affirming something about one object and denying it in relation to the other. Example: cikango eci ca kola, cize ni cahi (this iron is hard, that is not).

By the use of antonyms. Example: cikasa eci cilemu, cize ca cihehu (this box is heavy, that one is light).

By the use of a verb meaning “to exceed, excel or surpass,” as hiana, pulakana, tuvakana, vula, etc. Example: eci ca hiana cize (this excels that).

The superlative is expressed by one of the above verbs in conjunction with the indefinite pronoun ose. Example: ou na hiana vose (this one has excelled all, that is, he is the best).

The absolute superlative may be expressed by negation of that very quality. Example: kati kayando ua muene (literally “that wasn’t suffering he saw,” meaning, “he suffered terribly, he suffered to such a degree that ‘suffering’ is not the word for it”).

Several expressions are used which often express comparisons but that just as often are absolutes. These are: naho ngano, cipuakama, ntsamba ci pua, etc. Example: ntsamba ngano ci pua ngecize na kundikako (this fellow is getting there – as compared with another). The expressions mentioned seem to mean “moderately successful”.

By using an adverb of degree. Example: eci ca cili cikuma (this is very, very good, as compared with something else).

The Adverb

Adverbs are of three kinds, namely, adverb proper, onomatopoeias, and modal or descriptive adverbs or intensives.

The Adverb Proper

Adverbs of place:

kuintsi, muintsi (below, underneath),
helu, kuilu, muilu (above, upward, in heaven),
ha mavu (on earth or on ground),
halutue, kulutue, mulutue (ahead, in front),
hanima, kunima, munima (behind, afterwards),
mu ntima (inside),
hambandza, or kumbandza (outside),
hakati, kukati, mukati (inside, in between, in the middle),
hahiehi, kuhiehi, muhiehi (nearby),
halaako, kulaako (far away) or malaako (intensive form, far, far away),
hasinia, kusinia, musinia (other side, this side),
heka, kueka, mueka (elsewhere),
hose, kuose, muose (everywhere, anywhere),
mu vuhati (at the side),
ha (ku or mu) tsimba (on the porch),
hamo, kumo, mumo (together),
na kumo kuahi (nowhere), every form of the locatives. Example: ku a li, mu va li, ha ci li, hantsa ka va kele, kuno, kuze, etc.

Adverbs of time:

vuovuno (now),
laza (long ago),
haze, aha, oho (at the time),
hano ha lili (at this time),
ha litangua or ku litangua (every day),
ha ca or ku ca (at dawn),
ha mancanca ku ca or ku mancanca ku ca (at dawn),
ha vandemba or ku vandemba (at cockcrow),
ha lia pua (at this time),
ha kati (kati) or mu kati (kati) (noon),
ha cinguezi or ku cinguezi (in the evening),
tangua (someday),
na hamo hahi (at no time),
muaka ua li (last year),
mukolosika (next season or year),
mukolosikuluila (year after next),
miaka na miakula (years and years),
miakankulu or miakangoco (years without number),
-a ya ye (forever, eternally),
lelo (today),
mene (tomorrow),
meneavuze (day after tomorrow),
kuitica or nkuititia (third day from now),
kalenge (fourth day from now),
kalengeca (fifth day),
kalenguluila (sixth day),
zau (yesterday),
zaualize (day before yesterday),
zuzualize (three days ago),
zuzualizelize (four days ago)
halakaca (the next day),
cimene (in the morning),
cimenemene (early in the morning),
mene cimene or cimene ca mene (tomorrow morning),
lelo cimene or cimene ca lelo (this morning),
zau cimene or cimene ca zau (yesterday morning),
naua (again),
te or tele (at that time, then; always followed by present tenses),
te kanda (at that time not yet, before),
kasi, also hanga, kesi, kampe (still, yet),
na vuno, also no vuno, nolo (even yet),
ha vambimba (at the time of locusts),
ha ndzala (at the time of the famine),
kanda (not yet)

Adverbs of Manner, Degree, etc.:

vuasi, lusi (quickly),
viuno (well, skilfully),
ngoco (poorly, to no purpose, without sense or judgment, without pay),
mpundu (rightly, truly),
ka vundende (slowly),
ka vundende ka vundende (little by little, very slowly),
handende (nearly, almost),
ku meso (openly),
ku ndzimba (ignorantly, blindly),
lika (only, alone),
lika lia (alone; takes possessive pronoun of noun referred to),
mu kandzoka, mu tangotango (alone in the world),
ngeci, ngoco, ngecize (thus),
cikuma (much, greatly),
cikumakuma (very much, very greatly),
vati (how, what),
ngecili, ngecilihi, also ngacili, ngacilihi (how, why, like what),
vene (even),
mukemuo, mukemo (even so),
muose (in any manner),
omo vene (even so, all right),
mukemuo, mukemo (OK, all right),
hamo, kumo, mumo (together),
-ndzo (then; enclitic),
vupuakama, cipuakama, lipuakama, naho ngano (moderately, tolerably),
ngue (like, as, so, like as),
ngano (then, in that case, in any case),
na mumo muahi (in no manner); na with a noun forms adverbial phrases. Examples: na vutenu (angrily), na tulo (sleepily). The adverb is sometimes implied in the verb, as, fuma (go out of, come out). Example: ca fumu (it has come out),
kanduka (go up), example: ua kandukile (he went up),
sikumuka (come down), example: na sikumuka (he has come down),
ingila, kovela (go in, enter in),
tuhuka (go out),
tuntuka (come out of water, etc.)

Adverbs of mode:

eua, e, muane (yes),
cahi or ahi (no, not so),
mpano, hamo, hamosi, mpa (perhaps),
cili (certainly, verily, truly),
mua vusungu (truly),
houe, havue, haue (plural havueni) (I should say not),
ambe (nothing doing),
na, nana (no, not so).

Numeral Adverbs:

mumo (in the same way),
muvali (in two ways),
mutatu (in three ways),
muana (in four ways),
mutanu (in five ways),
lumo, luvale, etc., as noted under adjectives.

Onomatopoeia

The Luchazi language is very rich in words imitating natural sounds. Some are practically unwritable. They afford a field for an interesting study. Here we shall content ourselves with a sample with one verb, ku ua (to fall). Examples:

Ku ua vu (to fall like meal from a basket),

Ku ua lia (to fall with a crash, as of many things),

Ku ua ndia (as of a heavy object falling or something breaking),

Ku ua pakatu (to fall flat),

Ku ua ndu ndo, po (like the pestle in mortar),

Ku ua pu (to fall like a sack).

Modal or Descriptive Adverbs or Intensives

Some of those mentioned above are intensives and descriptive, but in this section we want to deal with a particular kind of adverb, viz., one that goes specifically with a certain verb as its own particular modifier and is often derived from it. Almost every verb has one or more adverbial modifiers that intensify its action. These are not onomatopoetic, as they do not try to imitate any sound. In Luchazi they are used as adverbs but are not translatable into English by adverbs in most cases. They are descriptive in their action.

In the case of some verbs the intensives is not directly derived from the verb but may possibly be derived from a verb in a kindred language. Examples:

Ku tila nge, ngengu (to be bright red),

Ku lava vui (to be pitch black or dark),

Ku lava pui (to be filthy dirty),

Ku tontola keke (to be ice cold),

Ku vuka to (to be snow white).

The trisyllabic verbs (not all, but especially those ending in -uka, -oka, -ula and -ola), drop the final syllable. Examples:

Ku kanguka kangu or kangula kangu (to recover completely),

Ku vatuka vatu or vatula vatu (to snap right off),

Ku anduka andu, ku hinduka hindu, ku tenguka tengu, ku tombola tombo, ku sanduoka sandu, ku zomona zomo, ku tomona tomo, etc.

The tetrasyllabic verbs drop the final -a and suffix the accented vowel of the stem. Examples:

Manusula manusulu (finish to the very end),

Aluluka alululu (turn clear around),

Pasuluka pasuluku (become all clear),

Huvuluka huvuluku (subside completely), etc.

Note: It will be noted that the monosyllabics take the accent. Many monosyllabics are triplicated. Examples: Ku manesa ma-ma-ma (to finish completely). In this example the particles are pronounced very rapidly. Ku tua ndo-ndo-ndo (to pound, thump, thump, thump). In this the three particles are pronounced more slowly, to give emphasis. Other modals, of more than one syllable, may be duplicated or triplicated to describe an action with greater effect. Example: va tuntile ha cana palanga-palanga-palanga (they ran on the plain, gallop, gallop, gallop).

Interrogative Adverbs

Vika (why, wherefore),

Vati (how, what),

Kulihi, mulihi, halihi (where),

Halihi (when),

Na haka (how long, until when),

Kulikuo, kuliko (whither, where to, whence),

Cingahi, vingahi, -ngahi (how much),

Ngecili, ngecilihi, ngacili, ngacilihi (how, what, like what, in what way), etc.

"When" is translated by many different phrases: Litangua lika (what day); Litangua li lihi (what hour, where is the sun); Tangua lika; Ngonde ika; Muaka uka, etc.

It will be noticed that ka is the root particle in these forms and that the enclitic hi is the root particle for "where". Hi may be suffixed to the verb li, preceded by any of the inseparable pronouns, as vi lihi?, u lihi?; a lihi?, tu lihi?, etc.

The Preposition

The basic prepositions are ha, ku and mu, with meanings as noted under Locative Nouns. On these three locatives are built many other words and phrases that may be used as prepositions. With li they form the prepositions hali, kuli and muli which sometimes have the same meaning as the simple locatives but often express agency or instrumentality (through, by, by means of). The rule as to when to use the simple preposition or the preposition with li might be stated thus: if the object governed by the preposition is a personal pronoun, li is added; if a personal noun, li may be added, but the third person pronoun is sometimes governed by the simple preposition. Examples: kuli ange, kuli enu, kuli ikeye (or ku ikeye), but ku muntu, ku vampuevo, or kuli muntu, kuli vampuevo.

The compound locative adverbs (the locative plus a noun) may be used as prepositions by use of alliterative concord. Note the concord in muintsi lia mesa mua zuala (it is dirty underneath the table). The compound preposition muintsi gives its pronoun to the verb it governs but not to the noun. The latter takes the copula of the noun part of the preposition intsi; intsi has two copulas, lia and ya, probably due to a lost prefix li, and to its present form. These compound prepositions are: helu lia, kuilu lia, muilu lia (above); ha lutue lua, ku lutue lua, mu lutue lua (in front of); ha nima ya, ku nima ya, mu nima ya (behind); mu ntima ya (inside); ha mbandza ya, ku mbandza ya (outside); ha kati ka, ku kati ka, mu kati ka (inside, in between, in the middle of); ha hiehi na, ku hiehi na, mu hiehi (near to); ha laako na, ku laako na (far from, far away from); ha sinia lia, ku sinia lia, mu sinia lia (on the other side of, on this side of); ku meso a (before); mu vuhati vua, ku vuhati vua (at the side of, beside); mu kosi lia (after [in time of birth], behind).

Ha- and mu- may be prefixed to the infinitive of verbs, as ha ku panga (in working, by working), mu ku ya (in going, by going).

The preposition is of course often conveyed by the prepositional species of a verb, but it may be conveyed in the meaning of the verb itself. Examples: va mu talele (they looked at him),

Mu fume (come out of him). But usually these verbs cannot govern a noun without a supplementary preposition, as ua fumine ku muntu (he came out of the man). As has already been stated, a preposition is often needed in a translation.

In the following examples note the various meanings of the preposition ku: va sikumukile ku muncinda (they went down from the mountain); va sikumukile ku Yelusalema (they went down to Jerusalem); ua kele ku Yelusalema (he was at Jerusalem); vi li ku mesa (they are on the table), vi li ku cikasa (they are in the box).

Na (with) is both preposition and conjunction. As a preposition association. Examples: a li nange (he is with me); a handeka nove (he is speaking to you). Note: Avoid using kuli with handeka. It is incorrect. Always say handeka na, not handeka kuli. Also note the following uses of the personal separable pronoun with na: nange, nove, neni (or na ikeye), netu, navo (or na vakevo).

Ngue (like). Examples: a fua ngue yove (he looks like you); a linga ngue vakuavo (he does like the others).

Via: the copula via is often used with the meaning "concerning, about," possibly carrying the thought of "about the affair of." Example: nji leke via muntu ou (tell me about this man). All the copulas are of course prepositions, as muhela ua muntu (the bed of the man). Some grammarians consider a the preposition, the first syllable of the copula being the class pronoun.

Na ku (until). Example: panga na ku cinguezi (work until evening).

Na ka lelo expresses "until today". Example: mu ve ku linga na ka lelo (2 Kings 17: 41).

Fume ku (from, since). Examples: fuma ku laza na ka laza (from long ago until today); fuma ku mizi (from the roots up).

Fume ku... na (ku heta) ku (from... to). Example: fume ku laza na ku litangua olio, or fume ku laza na heta ku litangua olio (from long ago and unto that day).

Omo (because of). Example: omo muntu ou nji na mono kayando (because of this man I have suffered).

Mu kati (on account of, because of). Examples: mu kati enu, vakua vifuti va sahula lizina lia Njambi (because of you Gentiles blaspheme the name of God); muomu yange nji ka luila limbo eli ku li ohiela, mu kati ange vene, na mu kati ngamba yange Ndaviti (Isaiah 37: 35).

The Conjunction

1. Kaha, na (and); na is used to connect words, phrases and clauses and introduce sentences if no sequence is suggested. It is often reduplicated before the first word of a series, as na Maseka na Kapanga nange tua pangele (Maseka, Kapanga and I worked); ua va tangele na yala na mpuevo (He created them male and female). But when the thought is broken, that is, a sequence is suggested, then kaha is used, as ua ile, kaha ua hilukile (he went and then returned). Kaha seems to incorporate the thought of "then", as kaha u ka linga vati (and then what are you going to do?); ha katete yove, kaha yange (first you, and then I).

2. Vunoni (but), used as in English.

3. Cipue, ni, amba, numba, imba (or, either). Cipue is the regular alternative coordinative conjunction, but the others are often used. Examples: u hianga eci ni oco (do you want this or that?); amba eci amba oco (either one); amba and imba may also be used instead of kaha with the meaning of "and then", as amba u ka linga vati? Which is identical with kaha u ka linga vati?

Amba vuose carries the force of "that being done, then," that is, "certain conditions being fulfilled, then". Ambani, ambandzo and kahandzo all mean "and then" or interrogatively "then what?"

4. Nga, me, me nga (if). Example: me nga nja ci tantekeyele (if i had [only] known it). The form mene nga is also used. Antsa is the negative form of nga (if not).

5. Vukata, cakala, cikalu, caka and vumbanda express the thought of "as soon as, when that". Example: cakala ku heta ku muncinda, kaha ku ndonga mu hiehi (as soon as the hill is reached, the river is near).

6. Vutuhu, vutusa (though, although, even though). Example: vutuhu nji muhutu, vuizi ka njesi navuo (although I am a poor person, I am not a thief). Cipue may be used in much the same way as vutuhu. Cipue also has the thought of "even if".

7. Linga, mpango, mangana, mahangu (in order that). These conjunctions are always followed by the conjunctive mood. Example: nji ku panga mangana nji ka zale (I am working that I may clothe myself).

8. Ngecize, ngoco, ngoco-ngoco, mukemuo (consequently, so, hence, therefore, likewise). Example: nja mu fuetele ngoco ka nja yonguele ku mu mona naua (I paid, consequently I didn't expect to see him again).

9. Si (since, seeing that). Example: si yove u nambemo, kunahu vene (seeing that it is you who has said it, the matter is finished).

10. Kambekeli, hitukili, hutikili, i ci li (if it be so with). Examples: kambekeli muaneni ngecize, kaha ou muntu ua ngoco a ka mu puisila kulihi? (if it be so with his own child, what wouldn't he do to a stranger?); hitukila vindele na vakuavo, lisimu lia niengue cikuma, kaha etu ni, ku tsa vene (if it be so among the whites themselves that they tax one another heavily, then for us there will be nothing to do but to die).

11. Vuno, olo (now, but). Example: olo tu ka linga vika? (Now what are we going to do?). The vuno and olo conjunctions are used to mark transition of thought or interrogation. They often occur with nga. Examples: vuno nga (now if); na vuno, no vuno, nolo (and now [until the present]); vunoco, vunondzo (now then). Examples: vuno kua kele muila ua uingi (now there was much grass there); Tata a panga no vuno (My Father worketh until the present). The two enclitics co and ndzo are much used in interrogation.

12. Ku tina (lest); also ku tinisa. This conjunction may be followed by the conjunctive mood but it is also correct to use it with the indicative. Example: a zamgame, ku tina a zimbale (let him be alert lest he become lost).

13. Ku vanga, te, tele (except, unless, except that first). This is not equal to the English in the usage. It will only translate the English "except" where the thought is "except first". Example: ka va li ku vanga va tana viuno (they won't eat except they wash well).

Te, tele (first, except that first). These need a special note since they must be distinguished from the adverbs (homonyms) meaning "then, at that time". Example (as a conjunction), te ua pandele ku linga eci (first you should have done this).

14. Muomu, muomuo, omo, omuo (because, for, on account of), used as in English.

15. Omo, omuo, vuose (when). Example: vuose ua sangumukile ku panga, te litangua kanda li tuhuka (when he began to work the sun had not yet risen).

16. Omo, omuo, vuose, ntsimbu (while). Example: omo nja kele oku, nja vavalele cikuma (while I was there, I was very sick).

17. Ntsimbu kanda (before). This is used as a subordinating conjunction to show that which has not yet come to pass.

18. Te kanda (before). This is always followed by a present tense.

19. Ha (when). When ha is used as "when" the prepositional species of the verb is used. Example: ha nji na ila, nja mu muene (when I went, I saw him).

20. Mu (when). Example: mu nji na i, nja mu muene (when I went, I saw him).

21. Noho (till, until). Example: a kale noho nji hete (let him be till I arrive).

22. Hose (whenever), kuose (wherever).

23. Ngoco vene, mukemo, mukemuo (therefore). Example: mukemuo uezile (therefore he came).

24. Amba nga (otherwise). Example: amba nga vika? (Otherwise, what?).

25. Kasi, kampe, hanga, kesi (yet, still, nevertheless, notwithstanding). Example: kasi ua ile (nevertheless he went).

26. Kati … cipue (neither … nor). Example: kati u ka lie mbolo, cipue ku nua mema (you shall neither eat bread nor drink water).

27. Mu … mu (as … so). Example: mu a linga nange, mu nji ka linga neni (as he does to me, so shall I do to him).

28. Ngue mu (as). Example: nji linga muze ngue mu a nji leka (I do as he tell me).

The Interjection

This is not a complete list but gives some of the more common ones:

Affirmation: e, a, eua, muane, eyo.
Doubt: ambe, nana, m-m (two consecutive grunts).
Pain: nani, nane, nanie.
Pleasure: hange, hengo, ehé, muane, eua-eua-eua, mbe.
Denial: mbi, a cahi, nana cahi, houe, ahá, na, havue.
Surprise or wonder: ha, ntu, nkuma, heua, ntsu, tu, tsu.
Yearning: vayaye, nstonange, ntsona, ntsonanje, kaye, ke.
Frustration: nduma (of no avail).

Appendix

This is not ordinarily a subject for a grammar, but in the Bantu languages the possessive pronouns, such as “my, your, his,” etc., are not used with certain nouns defining relationship but these are included in the thought of the word itself. It is very important to learn these words correctly from the very beginning as they are so common in everyday speech.

Father:

A paternal uncle is called “father” but may at times be distinguished by the term tata ua ntsongo or ntsongo ya tata (if younger) or tata ua mukuluntu or mukuluntu ua tata (if older).

Mother:

A maternal aunt is called “mother” but may also be distinguished by the limiting words ntsongo and mukuluntu.

Paternal aunt:

Maternal uncle:

Father-in-law or Son-in-law:

Mother-in-law or Daughter-in-law:

Brother, sister, cousin (by maternal aunt or paternal uncle):

Ntsongo (younger brother, sister or cousin). Mukuluntu (older brother, sister or cousin). Ndumbu originally was a general word for “sister” but it is now used indiscriminately for brother or sister.

Mpanji, sometimes mpangi (cousin, child of maternal uncle or paternal aunt).

Kuku (grandfather or grandmother). Mother’s grandfather is often called tata, and mother’s grandmother is called nana, though the proper word for great grandfather or great grandmother is kukuluila.

Muzukulu, sometimes muzikulu (grandchild).

Muzukuluila or muzikuluila (great grandchild).

Niali or nialivuko (brother-in-law or sister-in-law).

Muihua, plural vehua (nephew, niece). If a man is speaking, he means a sister’s child; if a woman is speaking, she means a brother’s child. Otherwise the word muana (child) is used. Examples: muanange (my child), muanove (your child), muaneni (his or her child), muanetu (our child), muanenu (your child), muanavo (their child).

Muana katumba (stepchild).

Twin is expressed by mpasa, muana mpasa, muana kalunga, muana masa, liasa (plural: vampasa, vana va mpasa, vana va kalunga, masa).

Kahalu (surviving female twin); Kanyanga (surviving male twin).

Female twins in order of birth: Cinenge and Mbacinenge; male twins in order of birth: Cilunda and Muntomba; mixed twins, male: Njamba; female: Ngeve.

Kafuti (child born after twins).

Muana umo (an only child).

Masa va hambandza (children born close together and nearly of a size).

There are names for the children as to their order of birth:

Kasulantsongo or cizika (last child, whatever number or sex).

The firstborn child, whether son or daughter, is called muana ua ntuatua, ntuamalutue, ua-ku-liteta-mutue, ua-ku-lilongesa.

There are no distinguishing words such as “son” and “daughter”. A qualifying word has to be added, as muana ua yala, muana ua mpuevo.

The words tata, nana, niali, etc., are often used in polite familiarity without indicating relationship.

Abbreviations: Abbreviations of a few verbs have been noted. There are many other abbreviations to learn from the people themselves. Here are few: na for nana, ta for tata, muetu for muanetu, nantu for nanantu, ya for yaya, yo for yove, ya for yange (listen to the nasal n in yan-nambelemo), ca for cahi, mpa for mpano.

Idioms: There are many idioms in common usage. Here are a few: nja ku tava (I believe you), mu vi na i (that is what, or how it, happened), vingahi lika (a very few), veya na veya or veya ni veya (many), yange nguange (I think), ua lingi nguove (you meant?), mu nja ambele (that is what I said, or intended), tu na seteka mu ntsimbu (we have tried to find a convenient time), nji ka heta oku? (will I attain to that?), hilukilamo (repeat that), nji ci hasa (I can do it, or afford to do it), nji mu hasa (I can beat him, or overcome him), ci tava (it is all right, it can be done, it is lawful), ku tsila mutima (to be single-hearted, of one purpose), ku aluluka ku mutima (to repent, be repentant), ange cipuakama (I am getting there), ntsongo na muntu (a man and his brother), umo na muanaye (a person and his brother), na tangamana, na sulunkuta (he’s done this, he’s done that; that is, whatever he does, it displeases); kati a nji kese na vitanga (I don’t want him to leave me with problems), hianga tuhia tu ka kosese (fetch fire that we may be warm when we sleep), ua muene ntsimbu (you found, or had, time), mu tua kelelele (that is how we lived – kelelele, reduplicative of kela from kala), cifuti ci li muila (it’s land of much grass). The verb ku kola (take possession of) is interesting: lihamba lia mu kolo (a spirit has taken possession of him), lindunda lia kola vanike (head-bumping has taken possession of the children), vuvezi vu li ku mu kola (an illness is overtaking him).

Again, attention is called to the locatives. They are difficult to understand and must be given special attention as there is no English equivalent in many cases. Take the following sentences: tu kuana ku mu ceketa (we walk along silently except for the rattle of bracelets and loads). The mu is a locative pronoun in the objective case referring to the state or condition in which we are walking. There is no translation into English; the student must learn to “think in Luchazi” to fully understand and appreciate its use. There are many similar cases.

Addenda:

Among my notes I find another tense: nja ca ya, ua ca ya, etc. Must have reference to a completed past action, something that was going on at a past time.

Another note: double infinitive in Luke 22: 48, “na kua ku mu tsemba”. Na is a conjunction followed by a double infinitive.

Notice the following sentence structures: Vuluka ove ua puile u ndungo (Deut. 16: 12), Ya sangumukile ku ana ku tuima (2 Kings 4: 34), Evi via nji tanguka (a neuter verb form used with an object complement), kuata kumo, eca kumo (take hold together, let go together), ua zuala Muntsa ka tanene (he is dirty because he didn’t wash), njila i nji endela (the path I go by), ku cuma cimo cisimbu ka va mu tantekeyele or kasimbu ka va mu tantekeyele (they failed to recognize him for some reason).

Note to students: Keep a notebook handy for unusual expressions and then check them out with a knowledgeable KaLuchazi.

Luchazi Grammar

Luchazi Grammar

Orthography and Phonetics

Consonants

Vowels

Diphthongs (gliding vowels)

Consonantal glides

Euphony

Coalescence

Elision

Umlaut

Accent

Stress Accent (Emphatic or Dynamic)

Semantic Tone, Intonation, Pitch, Musical Chromatic Accent

The Noun

Notes on Nouns

The Derivation and Formation of Nouns

I. From Verbs

II. From Nouns

III. From other Parts of Speech

The Alliterative Concord

The Pronoun

The Separable or Absolute Pronoun

The Inseparable Pronoun

The Positive Indicative Pronoun

The Negative Indicative Pronoun

The Enclitic Pronoun

The Possessive Pronoun

The Intensive or Emphatic Pronoun

The Reflexive and Reciprocal Prefix li

The Relative Pronoun

The Interrogative Pronoun

The indefinite Pronoun

The Demonstrative Pronoun

The Compound Pronoun

The Compound interrogative Pronoun

The Compound Demonstrative Pronoun

The Compound locative Demonstrative Pronoun

The Negative Pronouns

Idioms with Pronouns

The Pronominal -kua

The Verb

Inflection by Conjugation

Voice

Mood

The infinitive Mood

The Participial Mood

The Imperative mood

The Conjunctive Mood

The Negative mood

The Frequentative Mood

The Conditional Mood

The Indicative Mood

The Incomplete Present

The Present Progressive

The Present Continuative

The Present Prefect

The Immediate Past

The Indefinite Medium Past Perfect

The Definite Past Perfect

The Imperfect Past

The Continuing Past

The indefinite Past

The Definite Past Perfect

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