Luchazi Grammar
Orthography and Phonetics
Consonants
ᵐpʰ ᵐb
|
ⁿtʰ ⁿd
|
ᶮd͡ʒ
|
ᵑkʰ ᵑɡ
|
||||
Vowels
- The vowel a is Long when accented, as a in father. Examples: tata, nana. Short when unstressed or before two consonants or y or s and in monosyllabic adverbs, as a in artistic. Examples: tata, paya, asa, hanga, ma-ma-ma. Prolonged when doubled or stressed at the end of a word or syllable. Examples: ku laako, tambuka.
- The vowel e is Long when accented, as a in ale. Examples: heta, seza. Short when unstressed, as a in senate. Examples: hete, seze. Short with the value of e in met before two consonants. Examples: henga, lenda. Exceptions are hembo and membo (due to coalescence of vowels). Many words derived from Portuguese have the short vowel though not followed by two consonants. Examples: pena, papelo, luneta, ngehena, etc. Prolonged when stressed at the end of a word. Example: tambuka.
- The vowel i is Long when accented, as e in eve. Examples: tina, sika. Short when unstressed or before two consonants, as e in event. Examples: citi, linga. In monosyllabics it is short, as i in it. Examples: ni, ndi. Prolonged when stressed. Examples: ti, fui.
- The vowel o is Long when accented, as o in old. Examples: sota, koka. Short when unstressed, as o in obey. Examples: soko, loto. Short, with value of o in orb, before two consonants or y or s, and sometimes before z and in some monosyllables. Examples: onga, yoya, kosa, luozi, ndo. The o is long in zoza and ngozi. Sometimes prolonged when stressed at the end of a word. Example: to.
- The vowel u is Long when accented, as u in rude. Examples: tuta, fula. Short, when unstressed or before two consonants or before s, as u in put. Examples: futuka, mbunga, kusa.
Euphony
Coalescence
Elision
- i before a vowel is elided after c and also after j in the personal pronoun nji. Examples: cana (ciana), cu (ci u), ca (ci a), njamba (Nji amba), nju hasa (Nji u hasa), etc. The personal pronoun, third person singular, is elided before the tense particle na, but if the indicative pronoun precedes it, it reoccurs. Examples: na handeka, but, vi a na handeka.
- m before b as in mbuatama, m before p as in mpano, n before g as in ngandalo, and n before t as in ntiengu, are scarcely audible when not immediately preceded by a vowel, but are to be distinctly heard in the body of a sentence.
- tatetu (tata yetu), sukuluange (sukulu yange),
- kukueni (kuku yeni),
- muanetu (muana uetu),
- yaliange (yala yange),
- mpanjenu (mpanji yenu), etc.
- muana mpanga (muana ua mpanga),
- Muntu cilema (Muntu ua cilema), etc.
Umlaut
- ko u hasa (ka u hasa),
- no uze (na uze),
- no ukeuo (na ukeuo),
- ndoho yo uze (ndoho ya uze),
- yo u keze (ya u keze), etc.
Accent
Stress Accent (Emphatic or Dynamic)
Semantic Tone, Intonation, Pitch, Musical Chromatic Accent
- kanda, not yet;
- ku kanda, to forbid;
- ku kanda, to dig up peanuts (groundnuts);
- nja tava, I assented (in the indefinite past);
- nja tava, I assented (just now);
- nja ku panga, I have worked habitually (past tense of frequentative mood);
- nja ku panga, I shall work (immediate future tense of indicative mood).
The Noun
A noun is any member of a class of words that typically can be
combined with determiners to serve as the subject of a verb, can be interpreted
as singular or plural, can be replaced with a pronoun, and refer to an entity,
quality, state, action, or concept. The nouns are inflected by means of
prefixes (sometimes called classifiers) to show number or state. The noun
consists of two parts: the root (or stem) and the prefix. The root is
invariable. The prefix may be singular or plural, personal or impersonal,
diminutive, augmentative, or abstract. Examples:
Kuluntu (a compound root made up of kulu (old) and ntu
(man); Mukuluntu (old person); Vakuluntu (old people), cikuluntu (biggest
thing), likuluntu (huge old man), makuluntu (crowd of old men), kakuluntu
(little or worthless old man), and vukuluntu (old age)
There are eight main classes of nouns distinguished from one another by
their singular and plural prefixes. There are many subclasses and these are classified
according to their alliterative concord, but even in this there is a lack of
homogeneity, as a number of these nouns will take two sets of harmonic
particles, using one set with the possessive pronouns and another set with the
other modifiers. This classification of nouns is an arbitrary division. Since
classes 3, 4 and 5 take the same plural prefix in most cases, they might be
looked upon as one class. Or, classes 4, 5 and 7 might be split up into six
classes instead of three. Most nouns belonging to the eight classes and their
subclasses have both singular and plural prefixes, but there are many nouns
that have only the singular and others that have only the plural.
This classification of nouns is after all but an arbitrary division.
Since class 3, 4 and 5 take the same plural prefix in most cases, they might be
looked up as one class. Or, classes 4, 5, and 7 might be split up into six
classes instead of three. One has just as good an argument for splitting up the
classes as for uniting them or vice versa. But, in our arbitrary
classification, we are following in the footsteps of other grammarians who seek
simplicity in a smaller number of noun classes. As the subclasses overlap the
main classes one needs a rule for classifying these, viz: subclasses should be
placed under the main class whose alliterative concord they would be most apt
to use with a pure adjective, such as –pi (bad).
Class
|
Singular
prefix
|
Example
|
Meaning
|
Plural
Prefix
|
Example
|
Meaning
|
1
|
mu-
|
muntu
|
person
|
va-
|
vantu
|
people
|
2
|
mu-
|
muti
|
tree
|
mi-
|
miti
|
trees
|
3
|
vu-
|
vuta
|
gun
|
ma-
|
mata
|
guns
|
4
|
li-
|
lizo
|
tooth
|
ma-
|
mazo
|
teeth
|
5
|
lu-
|
luholo
|
face
|
ma-
|
maholo
|
faces
|
lu-
|
lumbongo
|
money
|
zi-
|
zimbongo
|
money
| |
6
|
ci-
|
citi
|
stick
|
vi-
|
viti
|
sticks
|
7
|
-
|
mpoko
|
knife
|
zi-
|
zimpoko
|
knives
|
-
|
mbuto
|
seed
|
vi-
|
vimbuto
|
seeds
| |
8
|
ka-
|
kavanja
|
Sweet potato
|
tu-
|
tuvanja
|
Sweet potatoes
|
Verbal
Noun
|
ku-
|
Ku-tala
|
Looking at
| |||
Locative
|
ha-
ku-
mu-
|
hazimo
kuzimo
muzimo
|
On the stomach
To the stomach
In the stomach
|
There are no articles, definite or indefinite. The noun prefixes seem to take their place. If it be necessary to emphasize a certain noun, the demonstrative pronoun is used. The numeral adjective “one” is used when it is necessary to emphasize the fact of but one object.
Classification of Nouns
- Class 1 (mu- va): this is called the Personal Class because nouns referring to persons belong to it. But in the Luchazi all animate beings take the pronouns and often the alliterative concord of this class, so it might be called the Animate Class. Even some inanimate and abstract things, which in the native mind have taken on transcending importance, belong to it, as Ndonga, tuhia, tulo and tusina. There are many subclasses and these are classified according to their alliterative concord, but even in this there is a lack of homogeneity, as a number of these nouns will take two sets of harmonic particles, using one set with the possessive pronouns and another set with other modifiers. The leading subclasses are:
- SubclassSingularprefixexamplemeaningPluralprefixexamplemeaningaka-kanikechildva-vanikechildrenbka-kasumbichickentu-tusumbichickenscmpuevowomanva-vampuevowomendi-intsifishva-vantsifishemu-muanganakingvamivamianganakingsfci-cihevefoolvi-vihevefoolsglu-luhavofemaleva-valuhavofemaleshSa-SaNgamboFather of NgamboVaSa-VaSaNgamboPolite form of singulariNia-NiaNgamboMother of NgamboVaNia-VaNiaNgamboPolite form of singular
- Class 2 (mu- mi): This might be called the Vegetable Kingdom Class, as most words for plants belong to it.
- Class 3 (vu- ma): Most abstract nouns belong to this class and usually have no plural. Words may be made abstract by substituting vu- for the regular prefix, as mukuendze (young man), vukuendze (young manhood).
- Class 4 (li- ma): The singular prefix li may be prefixed to other roots to give augmentative meaning, as vuta (gun), lita (large gun or cannon). ma- prefixed to another noun or root gives the meaning of great size or quantity. Words like tanga and sisa have lost their singular prefix but retain the pronoun and alliterative concord.
- Class 5 (lu- ma) and (zi-): This is one of the most irregular of classes. There are several nouns that take both plurals, as lungano plural mangano or zingano. There are other nouns which retain their singular prefix in the plural and the plural prefix is added to it, as lumana- plural malumana; lupula- plural malupula; luindza- plural maluindza but, lusiho- plural masiho or malusiho.
- Class 6 (ci- vi): This is one of the largest classes and next to Class 1 is the most important. It has been called the Thing Class, as the names of most the common articles belong to it. It also contains about a hundred words referring to persons and another hundred referring to animals, but these have been formed into a subclass of Class 1. There are more than a hundred abstract nouns in this class which are not usually used in the plural, as cilemo (love), cizindo (hate), etc. ci- and vi- may also be prefixed to other nouns to show contempt in the same manner as lu-.
- Class 7 (lost)- (zi- or vi-): As there is usually no prefix in the singular this has been called the Lost Prefix Class. a few words like inca and intso have retained the prefix i, and in the Nyemba language this prefix is common. Subclasses C and D under Class 1 may have belonged to this class originally as they still use its prefix with the possessive pronoun. A few words take the plural prefix vi- but this may be due to contact with the VaMbunda who use vi- altogether.
- Class 8 (ka- tu): This is the Diminutive Class. Words may be made diminutive by substituting ka- for the regular prefix or prefixing it to the regular prefix. Examples: cikolo (door), kakolo or kacikolo (small door); lilonga (plate), kalilonga (small plate). ka- is also depreciative, as kafueto (poor pay or little pay). tu- must always be used when a plural prefix is retained. Examples: tumema (a little water), tuvantsi (a few fish).
- verbal Nouns: Any verb may be used as a noun by using the infinitive form of the verb, viz. the particle ku plus the verb. To distinguish the verbal noun from the infinitive in writing, the hyphen is used. Example: ku-tsa(death). The verbal nouns take the pronouns and the alliterative concord of the ci class. Example: ku-tsa ceni ci li ku hiehi (his death is near).
- The locative Class: They are based upon the three prepositions ha, ku and mu. Ha has reference to time or place and means "at, on, when, by, through or upon." Ku usually indicates motion to, from or at. Mu denotes position, usually interior position, as "in, within, to or from within."
Ha has reference to time or place and means "at, on, when, by,
through or upon," as ha mesa (on the table), ha ku ivua (upon hearing),
etc.
Ku usually indicates motion to, from or at. Example:
ku Muye (at, to or from Muye).
Mu denotes position, usually interior position, as
"in, within, to or from within." Example: mu ndzivo (in the house).
Ha and mu are used in similar constructions but care should be used to
distinguish the meanings. Examples: Ha ku ya tua sevukile (at the time of going
we erred) and mu ku ya tua sevukile (by going we erred).
These three locatives prefixes may be used with almost any noun or verb
to form locative nouns, as hembo ha li luozi (at the village there is a fight),
kua ku-kala kuetu (our abiding place), ha ku panga ha nja uanene ngolo (through
working I found strength). It may be noted that the English equivalents lose
the substantival character of the native idiom. One has to learn to “think
native.”
Many locative nouns are formed with nouns that are not now used by
themselves. They have become “weak” through association with the locatives.
Such as are: ku kulutue, ha mbandza, mu ntima, ha kati, ku nima, ha hiehi, ku
laako, etc. Example: muimbo lietu mua mupi (conditions in our village are bad).
Note that the personal possessive pronoun –etu takes the alliterative con
concord of limbo but that mua retains the locative concord.
Notes on Nouns
Letter A placed before a noun is a sign of the
vocative case. Example: a ndona (o lady!). Something similar is used with
verbs, as e nehienu (oh bring ye!).
There is also a playful or coquettish way of using the nouns. If the
noun ends in –a this is changed to –e, as vunga, for vunga (flour), the voice
being slightly raised on the final syllable. If the noun ends in –i, -o or –u,
then –e is added, but if the noun already ends in –e, then –i- is placed before
the –e. Examples: Civundue, Livokoe, Mutie, Cipokie and Nane (Civundu, Livoko,
Muti, Cipoke, and Nana).
There are some double nouns, perhaps due to the loss of the copula
through common usage, as mbimba ntsompo, muntu cilema, muana mpanga, etc.
Some nouns are only used in the singular, as mundele, muandza, vuihua,
musambe. They have a collective meaning. Example: mundele ungahi (how much
maize?); musambe ua uingi (much/plenty sweet potato).
Other nouns have no singular: mema, mavisi, mazi. If a plural of these
be desired, it may be formed by prefixing vi-, as vimema. Other nouns like masa
and masangu have a singular but it is seldom used. Others, like mbuto, have a
plural but that is seldom used. Vimbuto would mean “seeds of various kinds.”
Zi may be used as in zimehia (cultivated fields) to give the idea of
quantity. Also va- as vatutali (dogs).
Some nouns, as has already been noted, lose their prefix when used with
the locative prefixes, as muzimo (mu lizimo), muimbo (mu limbo), muilu (mu
lilu), etc.
When the root of a noun begins with i-, this coalesces with the a-, or
i- of the prefix, as vezi, membo, helu, cizi, etc.
Mulongisi has two plurals: valongisi and milongisi.
Some nouns have variants, as ndongesi or ndongisi, cilinga or clingo,
cipange or cipanga, citeli or citele.
Words like cizava (faintness due to hunger) are made to agree with the
subject as to number. Examples: ua tsile cizava (he fainted with
hunger), but va tsile vizava (they fainted with hunger).
If there are two noun objects, the objective comes last. Example: mu ku
vuisa ngandi nstoni (to make so-and-so feel shame).
For clarity double objects are often used. Example: va mu
kuaniene Yesu.
The Derivation and Formation of Nouns
The language is exceedingly rich in sources for the
production of noun-forms. The derivation is mostly from verbs, though nouns,
adjectives and other parts of speech furnish some.
I. From Verbs
- The
simple verbal noun: ku-lia (food), ku-tsa (death), ku-panga (work).
- The
verbal noun with its object: ku-va-kuasa ceni (by his helping them).
- The
copulas ca and via with the verbal noun: ca-ku-linga, via-ku-linga, via-ku-lia.
Often this form is followed by na and the enclitic pronoun, as:
via-ku-likuasa-navio viahi (not having any resource of help).
- Adding
a prefix to the verb-stem: cifua, cikuama, cikukuma, Muhuza, kanua, livinda,
mutual, etc.
- Adding
a prefix and changing the final vowel to –e: ciheve, cihuke, cihulame, cipuye,
mukangule, vulahe, muovole, etc.
- Adding
a prefix and changing the final vowel to –i: kaniungi, cambangani, mukasi,
mukuli, mutsi, etc.
- Adding
a prefix and changing the final vowel to –o: ceseko, cifuiko, cihiso, cikango,
ciliato, muhotolo, lipito, etc.
- Adding
a prefix and changing the final vowel to –u: citungu, lihangununu, mukulu,
lihuzu, etc.
- Adding
a prefix and dropping the final syllable: vuasi (asiua), cihindu (hinduka),
mulambu(lambala), vusunga (sungama), luhande (handeka), muzimbu (zimbula),
kakoho (kohola), vupi (pihia), lisungu (sungula), muhale (haleka), etc.
- Adding
a prefix with a change in the verb-stem: cala (hala), cavu (zavuka), ciko
(hika), vuana (hana), ciyambi (yomba), cula (hula), citanguizi (tangula),
cisanguizi (sandula), lumbandzi (vadzila); and of the lost prefix class: ngolo
(kola), nkuli (kula), mbelo (kovela), mpimo (hima), ndimi (lima), etc.
- Adding
a prefix to the causative form of the verb (sometimes with a change of the
vowel): cikombeso (kombesa), citantekeyeso (tantekeyesa), cikomoueso
(komouesa), muyoyesi (yoyesa), etc.
- Adding
a prefix to the prepositional form of the verb (sometimes with a change of the
final vowel): cikutila, cisuilo, katalelo, ndzolela, cikungulukilo, etc.
- Adding
a prefix to a verb plus a noun, cikuatankanga, kazikamatuitui, kasendankuve,
etc.
- Adding
a prefix to a verb plus an enclitic: mukaleho (kalaho), mundiho (liho), etc.
- Prefixing
the pronoun mukua (pl. vakua) to the infinitive of the verb: mukua-ku-panga
(workman), vakua-ku-tava (believers), mukua-ku-hiana (overcomer, winner).
- Prefixing
the copula ua (pl. va) to the verb-stem: uasinama (fool), uayambangana
(senseless chatterer).
- Nouns
designating “manner of” are formed by dropping the final –a (sometimes the
final syllable) of the verb and suffixing –isi or –esi. Vu- may also be
prefixed. Often the stem-vowel is changed to –i- to harmonize with the new
ending. Examples: endesi or vuendesi (manner of walking) from enda, imbisi
(manner of singing), from imba, sonekesi (manner of writing) from the soneka,
tongisi (manner of sewing) from tonga, sansei, hanesi, vuambatisi, tandesi or
tandisi, etc. mpandikisi, where m- is prefixed to the verb pandeka.
II. From Nouns
1By
change of prefix, to augment: Lisumbi, limpuevo, mampuevo, etc.
2.
By
change of prefix, to diminutive: kana, kakuendze, etc.
3.
By
change of prefix, to show contempt: kakuluntu, lumpuevo, cikuluntu, etc.
4.
By
prefixing the new prefix before the regular one: kalilonga, zimehia, etc.
5.
By
change of prefix to make abstract: vuntu, vunike, etc.
6.
By
change of prefix to form a related noun: cilimi (from lilimi), citi (from
muti), etc.
7.
Adding
prefix to a composite stem: mukuluntu, cimpindakati, kasinakazi, etc.
8.
Prefixing
pronoun mukua (pl. vakua) to noun or to verb and noun: mukua mana, vakua Yesu,
mukua ku vundila vuana, etc.
9.
By
prefixing ka (pl. va) to abstract noun: kavusoko, vavusamba, kavuhale.
10.
By prefixing copula ca- (pl. via) to noun:
ca-muntu, via-ndzivo.
11.
By prefixing ca- (pl. via) to locative noun:
via-mu-ntima, ca-mu-ndoho, etc.
12.
By prefixing the intensive pronoun to the
noun: livene-ndzivo, ivene-ndoho, vavene-limbo, ivenea-vulo, etc.
III. From other Parts of Speech
1.
From
adjectives: (a) using the pure adjective stem with a prefix: cindende,
vindende, vundende, cingi, vingi, vuigi, etc; (b) by prefixing copula and
adjective prefix: via-vingi, va-veni, etc.
2.
From
the possessive pronouns: ceni, viange, vuove, etc.
3.
By
suffixing the enclitic pronoun to the intensive pronoun: ivenevio, iveneaco,
vaveneo, etc.
4.
From
the locatives with possessive pronoun: kuange, muetu, havo, tec.
5.
By
prefixing the verb phrase ua kala (pl. va kala) to a noun: ua-kala-luozi,
va-kala-zimpata, etc.
6.
By
prefixing ua (pl. va) to a noun or a phrase: ua-kanua, ua-katete,
ua-tsa-ha-ku-lia, etc.
7.
From
adverbial particles: kavuivuivui, kaveveve, etc.
8.
From
the locative nouns: ku-lutue-luetu (our front), ku-nima- yaco (its back), etc.
9.
From
nouns by joining one noun to another noun or a verb by the copula:
ndzivo-ya-vipanga, hondo-ya-ku-lila, etc.
Note: We note here the distinction between ka and mukua as prefixes in
relation to people. Ka is used for a member of a tribe. Mukua is used of a
person as a living in a certain country or village or on a certain river. The
plural va may be used of a village when treating its inhabitants collectively
as represented in the headman, as VaKazuangu nguavo –kazuangu (as representing
his village) says. But vakua Kazuangu nguavo, some of the Kazuangu villagers
say.
Note: The adverbial intensives are often treated as nouns. See under
Adverbs.
The Alliterative Concord
Class
|
Noun
prefix
|
Copula
|
Adjective
prefix
|
Example
|
1
|
mu-
|
ua
|
mu-
|
muntu ua mupi
|
2
|
mu-
|
ua
|
u-
|
muti ua upi
|
3
|
vu-
|
vua
|
vu-
|
vuta vua vupi
|
4
|
li-
|
lia
|
li-
|
lizo lia lipi
|
5
|
lu-
|
lua
|
lu-
|
luholo lua lupi
|
6
|
ci-
|
ca
|
ci-
|
citi ca cipi
|
7
|
i-
|
ya
|
i-
|
mpoko ya ipi
|
8
|
ka-
|
ka
|
ka-
|
kavanja ka kapi
|
Verbal
Noun
|
ku-
|
ca
|
ci-
|
ku-tala ca cipi
|
Locatives
|
ha-
ku-
mu-
|
ha
kua
mua
|
ha-
ku-
mu-
|
ha-mbandza ha hapi
ku ndzivo kua kupi
mu-citungu mua mupi
|
Class
|
Noun
prefix
|
Copula
|
Adjective
prefix
|
Example
|
1
|
va-
|
va
|
va-
|
vantu va vapi
|
2
|
mi-
|
ya
|
i-
|
miti ya ipi
|
3
|
ma-
|
a
|
a-
|
mata a api
|
4
|
ma-
|
a
|
a-
|
mazo a api
|
5
|
ma-
|
a
|
a-
|
maholo a api
|
zi-
|
zia
|
zi-
|
zimbongo zia zipi
| |
6
|
vi-
|
via
|
vi-
|
viti via vipi
|
7
|
zi-
|
zia
|
zi-
|
zimpoko zia zipi
|
vi-
|
via
|
vi-
|
vimbuto via vipi
| |
8
|
tu-
|
tua
|
tu-
|
tuvanja tua tupi
|
There is no case
inflection of nouns; they are alike in all cases. The possessive takes the form
of a genitive with the copula (equivalent to the preposition “of” in English).
Example: ngombe ua yala (the ox of the man, or the man’s ox).
Only a few adjectives
take both the copula and the adjective prefix. Some take only the copula while
others take only the adjective prefix. These will be found under the chapter on
Adjectives. The verbs expressing the colours take the adjective prefix and must
be considered irregular. Example: muntu mulava (black man).
Pronouns also take
the adjective prefix of the noun they modify. These will be noted later on.
In the classes
having ma in the plural, the adjective prefix sometimes coalesces with the
copula, leaving a single a. Example: malonga andende.
Many nouns in
Class 1 are often used irregularly with the zi- prefix, as vampuevo zietu
(our wives).
A few nouns are
never connected with their noun modifiers by the copula, that is, the copula is
suppressed, as muana-mpanga, muana-muntu. The nouns for “ten”, “hundred” and
“thousand” do not take the copula if they follow the noun they modify, but, if
the noun modified id placed in the genitive, the copula is used. Examples:
vangomba likumi, vampanga cihita, vampembe likulukazi, but likumi lia ngombe,
etc. Sometimes a noun stands in apposition to the noun modified, as muntu
cilema, yala ciheve, and mbimba mukumbi. The second noun has the force of an
adjective.
Words like luhavo
(female animal) can govern, or be governed by, the limiting noun. Example
mpanga ua luhavo, luhave lua mpanga.
Nouns that have
the prefix of one class of nouns but use the pronouns of another class, very
often take the alliterative concord of either, as kangelo ua muangana ua
sukukile, or kangelo ka muangana ua sulukile.
The Pronoun
The Separable or Absolute Pronoun
Class
|
Singular
|
Plural
| |
1st person
|
yange, ange
|
yetu, etu
| |
2nd person
|
yove, ove
|
yenu, enu
| |
3rd person
|
1
|
ikeye, yakeye, likeye, liakeye
|
vakevo
|
2
|
ukeuo
|
ikeyo
| |
3
|
vukevuo
|
akeo
| |
4
|
likelio
|
akeo
| |
5
|
lukeluo
|
akeo, zikezio
| |
6
|
cikeco
|
vikevio
| |
7
|
ikeyo
|
zikezio, vikevio
| |
8
|
kakeko
|
tuketuo
| |
Verbal
Noun
|
cikeco
| ||
Locatives
|
hakeho
kukekuo
mukemuo
|
Note the
construction of this pronoun: it is made up of the indicative pronoun, plus the
invariable particle ke, plus the enclitic pronoun (except in the case of the 1st
and 2nd persons of Class 1).
The Inseparable Pronoun
This is variously known as the Primitive or Connective
Pronoun, the Pronominal Prefix or Subjectival Concord. It is always used as the
immediate subject of a verb and is never omitted except in the imperative mode.
When a substantive is used, the immediate subject is the inseparable pronoun,
and the substantive stands in apposition to it. It may be used with the verb
understood, viz. nji muntu (I am a person). The objective form of the pronoun
is used in the accusative and also in the dative when no preposition is used.
The objective pronoun always precedes the verb and is placed next to it.
Class
|
Singular
Nominative
|
Singular
Nominative
|
Singular
Nominative
|
Singular
Objective
|
Plural
Nominative
|
Plural
Nominative
|
Plural
Nominative
|
Plural
Objective
| |
1st person
|
nji
|
nja
|
nje
|
nji
|
tu
|
tua
|
tue
|
tu
| |
2nd person
|
u
|
ua
|
ue
|
ku
|
mu
|
mua
|
mue
|
mi
| |
3rd
person
|
1
|
a, u
|
ua, a
|
ue, e
|
mu
|
va
|
va
|
ve
|
va
|
2
|
u
|
ua
|
ue
|
u
|
i
|
ya
|
ye
|
i
| |
3
|
vu
|
vua
|
vue
|
vu
|
a
|
a
|
e
|
a
| |
4
|
li
|
lia
|
lie
|
li
|
a
|
a
|
e
|
a
| |
5
|
lu
|
lua
|
lue
|
lu
|
a
|
a
|
e
|
a
| |
zi
|
zia
|
zie
|
zi
| ||||||
6
|
ci
|
ca
|
ce
|
ci
|
vi
|
via
|
vie
|
vi
| |
7
|
i
|
ya
|
ye
|
i
|
zi
|
zia
|
zie
|
zi
| |
vi
|
via
|
vie
|
vi
| ||||||
8
|
ka
|
ka
|
ke
|
ka
|
tu
|
tua
|
tue
|
tu
| |
Verbal
Noun
|
ci
|
ca
|
ce
|
vi
| |||||
Loc.
|
ha
ku
mu
|
ha
kua
mua
|
he
kue
mue
|
ha
ku
mu
|
Note that the inseparable pronoun is the same as the
prefix, but when the prefix has an initial mi-, this is dropped. Class 1 is an
exception.
Ci and vi are used when the antecedent is omitted or
is indefinite or after several substantives or after a clause. Examples: tu ci
tantekeya (we know it, referring to something mentioned); zimpuko, malonga na
mbolo vi li kuno (the knives, plates and bread are here).
For politeness the plural is used. Example: mua
hinduka? (Are you well?). When two pronouns occur together in the objective
case, the objective pronoun is used as the indirect object and is placed before
the verb, while the enclitic pronoun is used as the direct object and is
suffixed to the verb. Examples: nji mi hiaye (I give him to you); a ka mu
hiaco (he will give him it).
“All of us” and “all of you” are expressed by tu va
vose and mu va vose.
The Positive Indicative Pronoun
There is no exact
term in English that corresponds to the use of this pronoun, so a new term has
been chosen in order to distinguish it from others. It is positive because
there is also a negative. It is relative or conjunctive since it connects a
clause to its antecedent. It is objective since it may be translated into
English by a pronoun that in English is in the objective case. It is
demonstrative in that its main force seems to be to point out or emphasize its
antecedent. Since there are several sets of simple and compound demonstratives,
we thought it better to use a new term that would be free from ideas definitely
associated with other nomenclature. This pronoun is never used as the subject
of a verb but is always the introductory word of the clause. Its use seems to
be perfectly illustrated by “him” in Isaiah 8: 13 (RV) “Jehovah of hosts, him
shall ye sanctify.” It may be translated by the regular pronoun or the relative
pronoun, in the objective case, but from the viewpoint of native speech its
force is to point out or emphasize. Example: Yesu, I mu ka tsiliela
(Jesus, He it is that you must trust, or, Jesus, Him you must trust, or,
weaker, Jesus, you must trust Him). Examples: Talenu ngamba yange I nji
na hangula (Behold my servant whom I have chosen); Njambi, I tua leme
(God, He it is whom we love).
Class
|
Singular
|
Plural
|
1
|
i, ya
|
va
|
2
|
u, ua
|
i, ya
|
3
|
vu, vua
|
a
|
4
|
li, lia
|
a
|
5
|
lu, lua
|
a, zi, zia
|
6
|
ci, ca
|
vi, via
|
7
|
i, ya
|
zia, zia, vi, via
|
8
|
ka
|
tu, tua
|
Verbal
Noun
|
ci, ca
| |
Locatives
|
ha
ku, kua
mu, mua
|
The Negative Indicative Pronoun
- Satana, intsa ka mu ka tava (Satan, him you must not assent to);
- Viuma vize vintsa ka nja lingile (those things, them I didn't do);
- Eci ci nji ku linga cintsa ka u ku tantekeya vuovuno (this which I do, it thou knowest not now);
- Ue ku tia kuze kuntsa ka ua kuvile (thou reapest there where thou didst not sow);
- Muntsa (or muntismbu) ka nja lingile muka? (what didn't I do there?);
- Intsa (or intsimbu) ka nja muene iya? (whom didn't I see?).
Class
|
Singular
|
Plural
|
1
|
intsa, yantsa, yantsimbu,
Isimbu, yasimbu,
|
vantsa, vantsimbu, vasimbu
|
2
|
untsa, uantsa, untsimbu, uantsimbu,
Usimbu, uasimbu
|
intsa, yantsa, intsimbu,
Yantsimbu, isimbu, yasimbu
|
3
|
vuntsa, vuantsa, vuntsimbu,
vuantsimbu, vusimbu, vuasimbu
|
antsa, antsimbu, asimbu
|
4
|
lintsa, liantsa, lintsimbu,
liantsimbu, lisimbu, liasimbu
|
antsa, antsimbu, asimbu
|
5
|
luntsa, luantsa, luntsimbu,
luantsimbu
|
antsa, antsimbu, asimbu,
Zintsa, ziantsa, zintsimbu,
Ziantsimbu, zisimbu, ziasimbu
|
The Enclitic Pronoun
Class
|
Singular
|
Plural
|
1
|
-ye
|
-vo
|
2
|
-uo
|
-yo
|
3
|
-vuo
|
-o
|
4
|
-lio
|
-o
|
5
|
-luo
|
-o
|
-zio
| ||
6
|
-co
|
-vio
|
7
|
-yo
|
-zio
|
-vio
| ||
8
|
-ko
|
-tuo
|
Verbal
Noun
|
-co
| |
Locatives
|
-ho
-kuo, -ko
-muo, -mo
|
The Possessive Pronoun
Class
|
Singular
|
Plural
| |
1st Person
|
-ange
|
-etu
| |
2nd Person
|
-ove
|
-enu
| |
3rd Person
|
1
|
-eni
|
-avo
|
2
|
For the remaining classes the possessive
is the same as the enclitic.
|
The Intensive or Emphatic Pronoun
Class
|
Singular
|
Plural
|
1 (all persons)
|
ivene, yavene, livene, liavene
|
vavene
|
2
|
uvene, uavene,
|
ivene, yavene
|
3
|
vuvene, vuavene
|
avene
|
The student can
easily complete this table by observing the above mentioned rules.
The Reflexive and Reciprocal Prefix li
The Relative Pronoun
The Interrogative Pronoun
The indefinite Pronoun
The root –ose
takes the copula of the class referred to and has the meaning of “all,
everybody, everyone, everything, whole.” Examples: vose va li kuno (all are
here); kasitu uose (the whole animal); uose u li kuno (the whole is here);
viose vi li ha mesa (everything is on the table).
The roots –mo and
–mosi also take the copula to form a pronoun meaning “some, one, aught,
somebody, something, any.” Examples: vamo nguavo (some say); umosi ngueni
(someone says).
“Anyone” and
“anybody” are expressed by nkala muntu or muntu uose. “Any” or “anything” are
also expressed by nkala and –ose, as nkala cuma (anything), nkala muhela (any
bed) or cuma cose, muhela uose. These terms also mean “whosoever” and
“whatsoever”.
“Both” is
expressed by –ose -vali. Example: vose vavali vezile (both came).
“Nobody, no one,
naught” and “nothing” are expressed by na –mo -ahi. Examples: na umo uahi
(nobody); na vimo viahi (nothing).
“Each one” is
expressed by repeating the noun referred to, with the locative preposition ku.
Example: (ku) muntu ku muntu (each person). It is also expressed by –mo (na)
–mo. Example: vantu vose umo (na) umo va na pande ku neha mulambu (each person
must bring tribute).
“Some day” is
expressed by kota. Example: kota nji ka ya kuimbo (some day I am going home).
Muntu is used for
“one” in its impersonal sense. Example: muntu ka hasa ku linienga (one can’t
complain).
-a –ingi express
“much, many, several”; -a –ndende expresses “few, little”. Examples: via vingi
vi liko (much is there); via vindende vi limo (little is in there).
Cipue reduplicated
before words gives the meaning of “either”. Examples: cipue ou cipue uze na
pande ku ya (either this one or that one has to go); cipue yala cipue mpuevo
(either a man or a woman). With the negative particle it gives the meaning of
“neither”. Example: cipue eci cipue oco ka ci ka vantuka (neither this nor that
will snap).
The Demonstrative Pronoun
Class
|
Group 1
Singular
|
Group 2
Singular
|
Group 3
Singular
|
Group 4
Singular
|
Group 1
Plural
|
Group 2
Plural
|
Group 3
Plural
|
Group 4
Plural
|
"This"
|
"This"
|
"That"
|
"That yonder"
|
"This"
|
"This"
|
"That"
|
"That yonder"
| |
1
|
uno
|
ou
|
ouo, oo
|
uze
|
vano
|
ava
|
ovo
|
vaze
|
2
|
uno
|
ou
|
ouo
|
uze
|
ino
|
eyi
|
oyo
|
ize
|
3
|
vuno
|
ovu
|
ovuo
|
vuze
|
ano
|
aa
|
oo
|
aze
|
4
|
lino
|
eli
|
olio
|
lize
|
ano
|
aa
|
oo
|
aze
|
5
|
luno
|
olu
|
oluo
|
luze
|
ano
|
aa
|
oo
|
aze
|
zino
|
ezi
|
ozio
|
zize
| |||||
6
|
cino
|
eci
|
oco
|
cize
|
vino
|
evi
|
ovio
|
vize
|
7
|
ino
|
eyi
|
oyo
|
ize
|
zino
|
ezi
|
ozio
|
zize
|
vino
|
evi
|
ovio
|
vize
| |||||
8
|
kano
|
aka
|
oko
|
kaze
|
tuno
|
otu
|
otuo
|
tuze
|
Verbal
Noun
|
cino
|
eci
|
oco
|
cize
| ||||
Locatives
|
hano
kuno
muno
|
aha
oku
omu
|
oho
okuno, oko
omuo, omo
|
haze
kuze
muze
|
The demonstratives
of Class 1 may be used with all the persons of that class, as yange uno, yetu
ava.
As a rule, the
demonstrative pronoun follows the noun it modifies, as cifuti cino, muti ou,
but sometimes for emphasis it is placed before, as uno muaka, eli litangua. The
demonstrative pronoun when used as the subject of a sentence or clause is
followed by the inseparable pronoun, as ou a li kuno, eci ca vatuka. Sometimes the
verb is understood, as ou muhaza (this is the thief).
If an adjective is
used with the demonstrative, then the demonstrative comes before the adjective
unless it be desired to emphasize the demonstrative, then it may be placed
last. Example: muntu ou ua viuka; cuma ca viuka eci.
Note idiomatic
uses of these pronouns with others: yange uno (here am I); ikeye ou vene (this
is he himself).
The locative demonstrative pronouns are used as adverbs of time and place.
The Compound Pronoun
The Compound interrogative Pronoun
This is made up of the inseparable pronoun, plus the verb li, plus the enclitic pronoun. It is equal to the English “where is he (she or it)?”
Class
|
Singular
|
Plural
|
1
|
uliye
|
valivo
|
2
|
uliuo
|
iliyo
|
3
|
vulivuo
|
alio
|
4
|
lililio
|
alio
|
5
|
luliluo
|
alio
|
zilizio
| ||
6
|
cilico
|
vilivio
|
7
|
iliyo
|
zilizio
|
vilizio
| ||
8
|
kaliko
|
tulituo
|
Verbal
Noun
|
cilico
| |
Locatives
|
halico
kulikuo
mulimuo
|
The Compound Demonstrative Pronoun
This group is variously called Reduplicate Demonstratives and Reduplicated Locative Demonstratives. They are reduplicated forms of the simple demonstratives and indicate somewhat more definitely or emphatically the location of the antecedent. For the first position there are two forms. The first is perhaps derived from the Mbunda equivalents, but is so much used by some VaLuchazi that it is included in the table.
Class
|
Group 1
|
Group 2
|
Group 3
|
Group 4
|
Group 5
|
1
|
unoye
|
youno
|
you
|
Youo, yoo
|
youze
|
2
|
unouo
|
uouno
|
uou
|
uouo
|
uouze
|
3
|
vunovuo
|
vuovuno
|
vuovu
|
vuovuo
|
vuovuze
|
4
|
linolio
|
lielino
|
lieli
|
liolio
|
lielize
|
5
|
lunoluo
|
luoluno
|
luolu
|
luoluo
|
luoluze
|
6
|
cinoco
|
cecino
|
ceci
|
coco
|
cecize
|
7
|
inoyo
|
yeyino
|
yeyi
|
yoyo
|
yeyize
|
8
|
kanoko
|
kakano
|
kaka
|
koko
|
kakaze
|
Verbal Noun
|
cinoco
|
cecino
|
ceci
|
coco
|
cecize
|
Locative
|
hanoho
kunokuo
munomuo
|
hahano
kuokuno
muomuno
|
haha
kuoku
muomu
|
hoho
kuokuo
muomuo
|
hahaze
Kuokuze
muomuze
|
Class
|
Group 1
|
Group 2
|
Group 3
|
Group 4
|
Group 5
|
1
|
vanovo
|
vavano
|
vava
|
vovo
|
vavaze
|
2
|
inoyo
|
yeyino
|
yeyi
|
yoyo
|
yeyize
|
3
|
anoo
|
anoo
|
aa
|
oo
|
aaze
|
4
|
anoo
|
aano
|
aa
|
oo
|
aaze
|
5
|
anoo
zinozio
|
aano
ziezino
|
aa
ziezi
|
oo
ziozio
|
Aaze
ziezize
|
6
|
vinovio
|
vievino
|
vievi
|
viovio
|
vievize
|
7
|
zinozio
vinovio
|
ziezino
vievino
|
ziezi
vievi
|
ziozio
viovio
|
Ziezize
vievize
|
8
|
tunotuo
|
tuotuno
|
tuotu
|
tuotuo
|
Tuotuze
|
The pronoun in the
fourth column, “it is here” is more often used in interrogation with the
meaning “Is it there?”
As to the construction of these pronouns:
Group 1. The simple demonstrative “this” plus the enclitic pronoun.
Group 2. The indicative pronoun, plus “this, near”
plus suffix –no.
Group 3. Same as Group 2, less suffix –no.
Group 4. The indicative pronoun, plus the simple
demonstrative “that”.
Group 5. Same as Group 3, plus the suffix –ze.
The Compound locative Demonstrative Pronoun
The compound
demonstrative pronoun unites with certain forms of the locative pronouns to
form a Locative Demonstrative.
Note the
construction:
1st
Position: the compound demonstrative pronoun “it is here” plus aha, oku and
omu.
2nd
Position: the same pronoun plus oho, ok(u)o and om(u)o.
3rd
Position: the compound demonstrative pronoun “it is here” plus aha, oku and omu.
4th
Position: the same pronoun, plus oho, ok(u)o and om(u)o.
As to meaning, this is the same as for the compound demonstrative pronoun with the added definite location of the object. These pronouns are used independently and need no additional word or phrase. They are a sentence in themselves.
Class
| |||
1
|
youaha
|
youoku
|
youomu
|
2
|
uouaha
|
uouoku
|
uouomu
|
3
|
vuovuaha
|
vouvuoku
|
vuovuomu
|
4
|
lieliaha
|
lielioku
|
lieliomu
|
5
|
luoluaha
|
luoluoku
|
luoluomu
|
6
|
ceciaha
|
cecioku
|
ceciomu
|
7
|
yeyiaha
|
yeyioku
|
yeyiomu
|
8
|
kakaha
|
kakoku
|
kakomu
|
Verbal
Noun
|
ceciaha
|
cecioku
|
ceciomu
|
Locatives
|
hahaha
kuokuaha
muomuaha
|
hahoku
kuokuoku
muomuoku
|
hahomu
kuokuomu
muomuomu
|
Class
| |||
1
|
youoho
|
youok(u)o
|
Youom(u)o
|
2
|
uouoho
|
uouok(u)o
|
Uouom(u)o
|
3
|
vuovuoho
|
vuovuok(u)o
|
Vuovuom(u)o
|
4
|
lielioho
|
liekiok(u)o
|
Lieliom(u)o
|
5
|
luoluoho
|
luoluok(u)o
|
Luoluom(u)o
|
6
|
cecioho
|
ceciok(u)o
|
Ceciom(u)o
|
7
|
yeyioho
|
yeyiok(u)
|
Yeyiom(u)o
|
8
|
kakoho
|
kakok(u)o
|
Kakom(u)o
|
Verbal
Noun
|
cecioho
|
ceciok(u)o
|
Ceciom(u)o
|
Locatives
|
hahoho
kuokuoho
muomuoho
|
hahok(u)o
kuokuok(u)o
muomuok(u)o
|
hahom(u)o
kuokuom(u)o
muomuom(u)o
|
Class
| |||
1
|
Yo(u)oaha
|
Yo(u)oku
|
Yo(u)omu
|
2
|
uouoaha
|
uouoku
|
uouomu
|
3
|
vuovuoaha
|
vuovuoku
|
vuovuomu
|
4
|
lioluoaha
|
liolioku
|
lioliomu
|
5
|
luoluoaha
|
luoluoku
|
luoluomu
|
6
|
cocoaha
|
cocoku
|
cocomu
|
7
|
yoyoaha
|
yoyoku
|
yoyomu
|
8
|
kokoaha
|
kokoku
|
kokomu
|
Verbal
Noun
|
cocoaha
|
cocoku
|
cocomu
|
Locatives
|
hohoaha
kuokuoaha
muomuoaha
|
hohoku
kuokuoku
muomuoku
|
hohomu
kuokuomu
muomuomu
|
Class
| |||
1
|
Yo(u)oho
|
Yo(u)ok(u)o
|
Yo(u)om(u)o
|
2
|
uouoho
|
Uouok(u)o
|
Uouom(u)o
|
3
|
vuovuooho
|
Vuovuok(u)o
|
Vuovuom(u)o
|
4
|
liolioho
|
Lioliok(u)o
|
Lioliom(u)o
|
5
|
luoluoho
|
Luoluok(u)o
|
Luoluom(u)o
|
6
|
cocoho
|
Cocok(u)o
|
Cocom(u)o
|
7
|
yoyoho
|
Yoyok(u)o
|
Yoyom(u)o
|
8
|
kokoho
|
Kokok(u)o
|
Kokom(u)o
|
Verbal
Noun
|
cocoho
|
Cocok(u)o
|
Cocom(u)o
|
Locatives
|
hohoho
kuokuoho
muomuoho
|
Hohok(u)o
Kuokuok(u)o
Muomuok(u)o
|
Hohom(u)o
Kuokuok(u)o
Muomuom(u)o
|
Class
| |||
1
|
vavaha
|
vavoku
|
vavomu
|
2
|
yeyiaha
|
yeyioku
|
yeyiomu
|
3
|
aaha
|
aaoku
|
aaomu
|
4
|
aaha
|
aaoku
|
aaomu
|
5
|
aaha
|
aaoku
|
aaomu
|
zieziaha
|
ziezioku
|
zieziomu
| |
6
|
vieviaha
|
vievioku
|
vieviomu
|
7
|
zieziaha
|
ziezioku
|
zieziomu
|
vieviaha
|
vievioku
|
vieviomu
| |
8
|
tuotuaha
|
tuotuoku
|
tuotuomu
|
Class
| |||
1
|
vavoho
|
Vavok(u)o
|
Vavom(u)o
|
2
|
yeyioho
|
Yeyiok(u)o
|
Yeyiom(u)o
|
3
|
aaoho
|
Aaok(u)o
|
Aaom(u)o
|
4
|
aaoho
|
Aaok(u)o
|
Aaom(u)o
|
5
|
aaoho
|
Aaok(u)o
|
Aaom(u)o
|
ziezioho
|
Zieziok(u)o
|
Zieziom(u)o
| |
6
|
vievioho
|
Vieviok(u)o
|
Vieviom(u)o
|
7
|
ziezioho
|
Zieziok(u)o
|
Zieziom(u)o
|
vievioho
|
Vieviok(u)o
|
Vieviom(u)o
| |
8
|
tuotuoho
|
Tuotuok(u)o
|
Tuotuom(u)o
|
Class
| |||
1
|
vovoaha
|
vovoku
|
vovomu
|
2
|
yoyoaha
|
yoyoku
|
yoyomu
|
3
|
ooaha
|
ooku
|
oomu
|
4
|
ooaha
|
ooku
|
oomu
|
5
|
ooaha
|
ooku
|
oomu
|
ziozioaha
|
ziozioku
|
zioziomu
| |
6
|
viovioaha
|
viovioku
|
vioviomu
|
7
|
ziozioaha
|
ziozioku
|
zioziomu
|
viovioaha
|
viovioku
|
vioviomu
| |
8
|
tuotuoaha
|
tuotuoku
|
tuotuomu
|
Class
| |||
1
|
vovoho
|
Vovok(u)o
|
Vovom(u)o
|
2
|
yoyoho
|
Yoyok(u)o
|
Yoyom(u)o
|
3
|
ooho
|
Ook(u)o
|
Oom(u)o
|
4
|
ooho
|
Ook(u)o
|
Oom(u)o
|
5
|
ooho
|
Ook(u)o
|
Oom(u)o
|
ziozioho
|
Zioziok(u)o
|
Zioziom(u)o
| |
6
|
viovioho
|
Vioviok(u)o
|
Vioviom(u)o
|
7
|
ziozioho
|
Zioziok(u)o
|
Zioziom(u)o
|
8
|
tuotuoho
|
tuotuok(u)o
|
tuotuom(u)o
|
The Negative Pronouns
Class
|
Singular
|
Plural
|
Singular
|
Plural
|
Singular
|
Plural
|
Singular
|
Plural
|
uange
|
uetu
|
katiye
|
kativo
|
uali
|
vali
|
uaye
|
vavo
| |
uove
|
uenu
|
katiye
|
kativo
|
uali
|
vali
|
uaye
|
vavo
| |
1
|
ueni
|
uavo
|
katiye
|
kativo
|
uali
|
vali
|
uaye
|
vavo
|
2
|
uauo
|
uayo
|
katiuo
|
katiyo
|
uali
|
yali
|
uauo
|
yayo
|
3
|
uavuo
|
uao
|
kativuo
|
katio
|
vuali
|
ali
|
vuavuo
|
ao
|
4
|
ualio
|
uao
|
katilio
|
katio
|
liali
|
ali
|
lialio
|
ao
|
5
|
ualuo
|
uao
uazio
|
katiluo
|
katio
katizio
|
luali
|
ali
ziali
|
lualuo
|
ao
ziazio
|
6
|
uaco
|
uavio
|
katico
|
kativio
|
cali
|
viali
|
caco
|
viavio
|
7
|
uayo
|
uazio
uavio
|
katiyo
|
katizio
Kativio
|
yali
|
ziali
viali
|
yayo
|
ziazio
viavio
|
8
|
uako
|
uatuo
|
katiko
|
katituo
|
kali
|
tuali
|
kako
|
tuatuo
|
Verbal Noun
|
uaco
|
katico
|
cali
|
caco
| ||||
Locative
|
uaho
uakuo
uamuo
|
katiho
katikuo
katimuo
|
hali
kuali
muali
|
haho
kuakuo
muamuo
|
In class 1 the
pronoun is the same for all persons except in Group 1.
The pronoun of the
first group is made up of the negating particle ua plus the possessive pronoun.
It means “I (you, he, she, it, they) refuse(s)”. It is used independently or may
be used with the antecedent, as citi uaco (the stick refuses to yield to the
desire of the workman).
The pronoun of the
second group is made up of the negative kati plus the enclitic pronoun. It means
“not I (you, he, etc.)” and is used in refusing or denying something, as not
being the object desired or intended. With the first two persons of Class 1 the
separable and inseparable pronouns must be used. Example: ange nji katiye (I am
not the one).
The pronoun of the
third group is the past form of the inseparable pronoun plus the verb li. It means
“I don’t want it (him, them, that)”. The first two persons must be used with
the inseparable pronoun. Example: nji uali (I am not wanted).
The pronoun of the
fourth group is the past form of the inseparable pronoun, plus the enclitic
pronoun. It means “not that one but another”. It is much the same in the
meaning as the pronominal adjective –eka. If used with the first two persons it
must have the separable and inseparable pronouns. Example: yange nji uaye (I am
not the one wanted but a different person).
The Locative Possessive
Class
|
Singular
|
Plural
|
singular
|
Plural
|
Singular
|
Plural
|
hange
|
hetu
|
kuange
|
kuetu
|
muange
|
muetu
| |
hove
|
henu
|
kuove
|
kuenu
|
muove
|
muenu
| |
1
|
heni
|
havo
|
kueni
|
kuavo
|
mueni
|
muavo
|
2
|
hauo
|
hayo
|
kuauo
|
kuayo
|
muauo
|
muayo
|
3
|
havuo
|
hao
|
kuavuo
|
kao
|
muavuo
|
muao
|
4
|
halio
|
hao
|
kualio
|
kuao
|
mualio
|
muao
|
5
|
haluo
|
hao
hazio
|
kualuo
|
kuao
kuazio
|
mualuo
|
muao
muazio
|
6
|
haco
|
havio
|
kuaco
|
kuavio
|
muaco
|
muavio
|
7
|
hayo
|
hazio
havio
|
kuayo
|
kuazio
kuavio
|
muayo
|
muazio
muavio
|
8
|
hako
|
hatuo
|
kuako
|
kuatuo
|
muako
|
muatuo
|
Verbal Noun
|
haco
|
kuaco
|
muaco
| |||
Locative
|
haho
hakuo
hamuo
|
kuaho
kuakuo
kuamuo
|
Muaho
Muakuo
muamuo
|
Idioms with Pronouns
- Kaha with the enclitic pronoun means "that is all there is of."
- Ngua with the possessive pronoun means "saying" or "said."
- Mukua with the possessive pronoun forms "fellow" or "companion." With the inanimate classes it has the meaning of "the other." In the inanimate classes kuavo is the constant and the adjective prefix is the variable.
Class
|
Singular
|
Plural
|
Singular
|
Plural
|
Singular
|
Plural
|
kahaye
|
kahavo
|
nguange
|
nguetu
|
mukuetu
|
vakuetu
| |
kahaye
|
kahavo
|
nguove
|
nguenu
|
mukuenu
|
vakuenu
| |
1
|
kahaye
|
kahavo
|
ngueni
|
nguavo
|
mukuavo
|
vakuavo
|
2
|
kahauo
|
kahayo
|
nguauo
|
nguayo
|
ukuavo
|
ikuavo
|
3
|
kahavuo
|
kahao
|
nguavuo
|
nguao
|
vukuavo
|
akuavo
|
4
|
kahalio
|
kahao
|
ngualio
|
nguao
|
likuavo
|
akuavo
|
5
|
kahaluo
|
kahao
|
ngualuo
|
nguao
|
lukuavo
|
akuavo
|
kahazio
|
nguazio
|
zikuavo
| ||||
6
|
kahaco
|
kahavio
|
nguaco
|
nguavio
|
cikuavo
|
vikuavo
|
7
|
kahayo
|
kahazio
|
nguayo
|
nguazio
|
ikuavo
|
zikuavo
|
kahavio
|
nguavio
|
vikuavo
| ||||
8
|
kahako
|
kahatuo
|
nguako
|
nguatuo
|
kakuavo
|
tukuavo
|
Verb Noun
|
kahaco
|
nguaco
|
cikuavo
| |||
Locative
|
kahaho
kahakuo
kahamuo
|
nguaho
nguakuo
nguamuo
|
hakuavo
kukuavo
mukuavo
|
The Pronominal -kua
Class
|
Singular
|
Plural
|
1
|
mukua
|
vakua
|
2
|
ukua
|
ikua
|
3
|
vukua
|
akua
|
4
|
likua
|
akua
|
5
|
lukua
|
akua
|
zikua
| ||
6
|
cikua
|
vikua
|
7
|
ikua
|
zikua
|
vikua
| ||
8
|
kakua
|
tukua
|
Verb Noun
|
cikua
| |
Locative
|
hakua
ukua
mukua
|
As to its use in the impersonal: Proverbs 20: 1, Viniu vikevio vikua ku tomba, via-ku-nua via ku kola vikevio vikua luozi.
The Verb
The verb will be
considered under two headings: Inflection by Conjugation and Inflection by
Formative Suffixes and Infixes. By Inflection by Conjugation is meant the
changes that the verb suffers as to Voice, Mood and Tense. By Inflection by
Formative Suffixes and Infixes is meant the modifications wrought in the verb
so as to change its primary meaning. These Formal Derivative Species are also
inflected by conjugation, receiving identical treatment with the primitive
verbs. In many cases the primary verb has disappeared from the language and
only the Formal Derivatives is left.
A few general
statements about the verb will prove helpful in its study:
1.
With
the sole exception of the verb li, the present infinitive of all verbs ends in
the vowel –a. Examples: ku ya, ku enda, ku panga.
2.
There
is no inflection to show person or number, that is, the verb remains unchanged
for all persons, singular and plural. Examples: nji ya, u ya, a ya, tu ya, mu
ya, va ya.
3.
Most
primary verbs are disyllabic or trisyllabic and the stress accent falls on the
penultimate. Some homonyms are distinguished by musical accent and prolonged
vowels. There are about two dozen monosyllabic verbs and in these the stress
accent falls on the preceding pronoun or particle. Care should be taken to
learn the musical accent as some homonyms will even take the musical accent on
the preantepenultima. Tenses are also distinguished from one another by musical
accent. Tetrasyllabic verbs are common but are stems of radicals.
4.
The
root, as distinct from the stems of the verb, is invariable. It consists of the
first syllable (exclusive of the prefix li-) and all the consonants which
immediately follow the vowel. Example: in santsela the root sants while ela is
the formative suffix.
5.
The
termination may change according to the Voice, Mood, Tense and species.
Inflection by Conjugation
Voice
There are four voices
in Luchazi: Active, Passive, Middle and Neuter Passive.
The Active voice,
as in English asserts that the subject is, does or undergoes something.
The Passive voice
is practically missing from the language as only a very few verbs take the
passive suffix ua. Ku is the preposition used to show the agent. Examples: a
sema muana (she bears a child); muana a semuua ku mpuevo (a child is born by
the woman). The native idea of the passive is not in agreement with ours, as in
ku lema (to weigh or be be heavy), ku lemuua (to be heavy or feel heavy to the
bearer); ku noka (to rain), ku nokoua (to be rained upon, to leak). Many other
verbs ending with the passive ua seem to be neuter passive in meaning. The lack
of the passive is made up to some extent by the neuter passive. The active
voice is used in translating many passive meanings, as “He was beaten by the
man” – yala uze ua mu vetele (that is, that man beat him). The third person
plural pronoun is used impersonally when no agent is mentioned, as “I was
beaten” (va nji vetele).
The Middle Voice
is formed by prefixing the particle li-, which the subject is represented as
both the agent and the object of the action, as a liveta (he beats himself). It
takes all the tenses of the active voice and is often classified as a Formal
Derivative Species. This prefix is also Reciprocal. Example: va liveta (they
beat one another). Apparently, any transitive verb can be conjugated in the
Middle Voice and the intransitive verbs to some extent. Note: lihangunuka
(separate oneself); va likungulukile (they gathered themselves together); na
litungumuka (he has awakened himself).
The Neuter Passive
differs from the Passive in that there is no hint of an agent or an external
force. It might be called an absolute form of the passive. Care must be taken
not to confuse neuter passive verbs with others of a similar ending. Most
trisyllabic and tetrasyllabic verbs ending in –uka, -oka and –ama are neuter
passive in meaning. Examples: ku pokoka (to break); ku vatuka (to snap).
Mood
There are at least
eight Moods: The Infinitive, Participial, imperative, Conjunctive, Negative,
Frequentative, Conditional and Indicative.
The infinitive Mood
The infinitive is
characterized by the prefix ku-, corresponding to the English “to”. As already
been stated, the simple infinitive ends in –a, with the exception of the verb
li. Examples: ku pua, ku panga, ku tavuka, ku tengumuka. Its use as a Verbal
Noun has already been noted. Often the infinitive and its object complement may
be treated as a verbal Noun. Example: ku-nji-lema cove ca va tanganesa (your
loving me has confused them).
The infinitive is
also used in the participial form as noted under that mood.
The infinitive may
be used for emphasis: ku panga, tua pangele (work, we worked). It is used with
or without locative particles as complement of another verb. Example: neza mu
ku panga, or neza ku panga (he has come to work). It is used independently in
phrases, clauses and sentences. Examples: ku panga cahi (“we are” not to work);
ku puisamo cahi (there isn’t enough); cikeco kati ku panga, ku tsa vene (that
isn’t work, it is death); ange ku kala kuno ka ci ku tava (for me to stay here
is impossible).
The infinitive in
ts simple form is used in many tenses, as will be noticed under the indicative
mood.
In some tenses the
infinitive takes the past perfect form, as in nje ku pangele, nja na ku
pangele, etc. These are noted under the infinitive Mood.
With kua and kuana
the infinitive forms a kind of double infinitive. Example: nji kua ku ya (I am
going to go); nji kuana ku panga (I am going working). In English these are
participles. Examples: kuana ku imba ca viuka (to go singing is fine); ua
fumine kuze kuana ku longesa mu membo avo; nji hianga kua ku mi mona, etc.
The infinitive may
also take a conjunctive ending: ambata lilonga linga mua kuana ku ende nalio
(take the plate that you may have it with you as you go).
The Participial Mood
This is formed by
prefixing the locatives ha- and ma- and the conjunction na to the different
forms of the infinitive. Examples: ha ku ya nja mu muene (going I saw him); mu
kuana ku ambulula ua hetele kuimbo lietu (going preaching he reached our
village); enu ha ku ci mona ka mua lialuluisile ku mitima (you, beholding it,
did not repent); linga enu mu ku mi tungisa mu cilemo, mu kaniame (that you,
building yourselves up in love, may be strong); ku heta haze ha na kele, ku
uana na I laza (arriving where he had been “I” found that he had already gone).
This latter, from the viewpoint of the native language, might be considered the
infinitive mood. Examples, with na: ua ile na ku zola (he went laughing),
tenses like tu li ku panga, etc., are translated by the participle in English
but might well be considered tenses of the infinitive mood. In the following
sentence note the participial construction with an adverbial meaning: ha ku
manesa nja mu sekuile (in the end I drove him away).
The Imperative mood
The imperative
singular of a verb is simply the root infinitive. Examples: ya (go), tala
(look), katuka (rise). But if the particle li- is prefixed, or any other
particle or pronoun precedes the verb, then the conjunctive form occurs.
Examples: lituike (pick up your load), mu vete (beat him).
The imperative
plural is formed by dropping the final –a of the verb and suffixing –enu.
Examples: pangenu (work ye), nuenu (drink ye). But, as in the singular, if
anything precedes the verb, then the suffix is ienu. Examples: litavienu
(confess ye), mu kuatienu (catch him). If there be direct and an indirect
object, the direct is suffixed to the verb (using the enclitic pronoun), while
the indirect is placed before the verb. Examples: nji hieco (give me it), ka
nji tuntileye (please run and get him for me).
The English
phrasal imperative “let us” is translated by the imperative plural preceded by
the personal pronoun tu. Example: tu pangienu (let us work).
For politeness the
subjunctive is often used. Example: a ye (may he go), va ka pange (may they
work). Other polite forms are made by prefixing ka, a ci, ka ci or va ci to the
regular imperative. Examples: a ci nehe, ka ci nehienu, va ci pange, ka pange.
A kind of vocative
of the imperative mood has been noted elsewhere, the placing of the vowel e
before the verb. Example: e nehienu (oh bring ye!).
The emphatic or
intensive form may be used in the imperative, but in the plural imperative only
the reduplication is inflected. Example: pangu-pangenu (work ye hard).
For emphasis –e is
sometimes substituted for the final –a in the singular, and in the plural, it is
suffixed, and in shouting to someone, -eho is often suffixed. Examples: pangé,
pangenué (note the musical accent), tuntého, tuntenuého (note stress).
Some special forms
of the imperative should be noted: tuaya, tuayenu (come), hamoye, hamenu (go).
Also “come” when followed by the subjunctive: tuo u mone (come that you may
see), tue mu pange (come that ye may work). The phrasal imperative “let us go”:
tua (or tuo) tu ye(nu), tua (ta) ti ye(nu), ta tu ye(nu).
The Conjunctive Mood
The conjunctive
mood is formed by changing the final vowel of the verb stem to –e. The tenses
that take the conjunctive will be shown under the Indicative Mood by the letter
“c”. In the case of the reduplicated verbs, the monosyllabics only inflect the
final while the disyllabics inflect both. Examples: a ya-ya-ye (may he keep on
going), a pange-pange (may he keep on working).
The conjunctive
has the following uses:
1.
Imperative,
as already noted under that heading.
2.
Interrogative,
as nji ye? (May I go?).
3.
After
the adverb kanda when the thought is “never yet”. Examples: kanda u pange (have
you never yet worked), but kanda u panga? (haven’t you begun to work yet?).
Kanda u vi mone (have you never before seen anything like these?), but kanda u
vi mona (haven’t you seen these yet?).
4.
Prohibitive
after the negative: kati. Examples: kati mu tave (don’t assent); kati mu ka ye
(ye shall not go or don’t go).
5.
Obligatory,
as lelo a pange (today he shall work).
6.
Permissive,
as u ye kuimbo (you may go to the village).
7.
The
subjunctive is used to express an act which is intended to follow another. The
subjunctive always follows the imperative and always follows the subordinating
conjunctions linga, mangana, amba (when future) and sometimes kaha, as panga
ovio kaha u ka tambule (do those things and then you will receive – be paid).
The Negative mood
The negative
conjugation is considered a mood by many grammarians. As the negative mood is
the same as the indicative in the most tenses (except for the negative
particle), only the differing tenses will be given here, and the others will be
indicated by an “N” under the Indicative Mood.
The negative mood
is formed by prefixing the particle ka- to the indicative tense. In the case of
monosyllabic and disyllabic verbs certain inflections occur in certain tenses.
These are noted below:
Note the
coalescence or elision in the third person singular.
The negative form
of the verb li (used only in the present) is esi, and this coalesces with the
pronoun (and in third person singular with the negative particle) to form ka
njesi, ka uesi, kesi, ka tuesi, ka muesi, ka vesi.
In the future it
is also correct to use the root infinitive form, as ka nji ka nua, ko u ka nua,
ka ka nua, etc.
In the future it
is also correct to use the root infinitive. Note the “vowel mutation” in the
negative of the second person singular. The impersonal pronouns are never
elided. Examples: ka pangele (he did not work), but ka ca vatukile (it did not
snap).
It is very
important to learn the correct forms of the monosyllabic and disyllabic verbs
in the negative conjugation as this same form is also used in two tenses of the
indicative mood. The monosyllabics drop the final –a of the diphthong, and the
verbs ca, ha, sa, and ta change the final –a to –e (thus ce, he, se, te). Ya
becomes i, hia (to give) becomes hie, and tsa becomes tsi.
For the disyllabic
verbs there seems to be no definite rule as to the ending but there is some
tendency to change the final vowel to make it agree with the root vowel. Note
hake, zeye, soko, hiti, tungu. An actual count of nearly six hundred
disyllabics revealed that about 50% of the verbs having the root vowel a or e
would retain the final –a and the other 50% changed to –e; 60% of the verbs
having the root i would take a final –i, while the other 40% retain the final
–a; 65% of the verbs having the root vowel o or u would take a final –o or –u,
while the other 35% retain the final –a. As there are some seven or eight
hundred disyllabic verbs, it is best to learn this ending when learning the
verb. As the Luchazi and Mbunda languages disagree at times, care is needed.
The suffixing of
the enclitics to the past form of the verb causes a change in the dynamic and
musical accents. The stress accent moves to the penultimate and a musical
accent is given to the accented vowel of the simple form of the verb. Example:
ka nja tuvakánenéko. Even when there is no enclitic, a musical accent is given
to the primary vowel. There is a musical accent even in the present tense.
Examples: nji hása, njí hása, nja haséle, ka nja háséle, ka nja háseléko.
The conjunctive
mood also takes the negative conjugation. Examples: ka nji kave, ka nji ka
tave. There is a subtle difference between ka nji kava and ka nji kave. The
former seems to mean the immediate present, while the latter makes it more
indeterminate and the future.
Kati may be used
as a negating particle with some tenses with which it would be wrong to use ka.
Example: kati nji na handeka (didn’t I speak?). Kati with prohibitive sense has
been noted under the conjunctive mood. Kati is also used in absolute phrases.
Examples: kati cange (not mine), kati ngecize (not thus), kati via vindende
(not a few, not a little).
The Frequentative Mood
This mood describes
habitual action, which is usual, like the English “to be wont to, to be in the
habit of, to do usually”.
Note that the
frequentative past is exactly the same in form as the immediate future of the
indicative mood. The difference lies in the musical accent.
The Conditional Mood
This mood is not
equal to the English conditional but might possibly be used to translate “would
have” and “should be” in the sense of latent possibility. It seems rather to
express “I was about to; I was on the point of”.
With antsa ka
(abbreviation of ngantsa ka) a conditional is formed, “wouldn’t have”. Example:
antsa ka nja muene nga na pitileko (wouldn’t I have seen him if he had passed
by?). Also, with kasimbu. Example: ove ua Yesu, kasimbu ka ile nove (if you had
been a Christian, wouldn’t he have taken you with him?).
The conditional is
the most frequently expressed by the repetition of nga (if) before the
independent and dependent clauses. Example: nga nja mu muene, nga nja mu heleco
(if I had seen him, I would have given him it).
Another
conditional-potential construction is made by a reduplication of the pronoun in
two consecutive verbal phrases. Examples: zize ka zia mu pandele ku zi lia (he
shouldn’t have eaten those); va linga evi ka vi tava ku vi linga (they do that
which shouldn’t be done). Some form of panda or tava is used in this
construction. The above examples are all negative, but they may be used
positively as well.
The Indicative Mood
The tenses that
are used in the conjunctive and negative moods will be indicated by the letters
“C” and “N” after the name of the tense. Those that take the negative
conjunctive will be marked with an additional “NC”. The nomenclature used is an
attempt to describe the approximate value as to time, but it must not be regarded
as limiting or conclusive. The natives love litigation and perhaps the tenses
are conceived with the intent of being ambiguous and even equivocal. Thus, the
language lends itself to oratorical rhetoric without definite committal.
It would be
helpful to the student to read the notes on “The Auxiliary Verb and Particles”
appended at the end of the Indicative mood.
The third person
singular personal pronoun is dropped in all tenses beginning with na or ne but
reoccurs after the positive indicative pronoun.
These two tenses
seem almost identical in the meaning, but the latter seems to carry with it more
of indefiniteness and futurity. These tenses seldom have the idea of immediate
or present action, but rather of present possibility. The one is simple in
structure, the other infinitive in structure. The simple present is seldom used
except in the conjunctive, negative and negative conjunctive moods. For the
negative, see that mood.
This is named the
premier present because it often gives the idea of the action as taking place
first and then something else following. Example: nji ci ku manesa eci amba nji
ku ya (I am going to finish this first, then afterwards I shall go). The two
tenses seem identical in meaning but the former is more indefinite.
The Incomplete Present
There are three
variations of this tense and there seems to be no difference in meaning. It
might be the literal present, as it seems to denote an action which may have
started in the past and is going on to its completion in the present. But sometimes
it may signify an action as just starting and which the actor intends to carry
through to completion.
The Present Progressive
This tense is the
same in form as the incomplete present, without the tense particle ci. It has
the same three forms. In meaning it seems equal to the English present
progressive. It is more indefinite than the incomplete present.
(N)˚ see Negative
Mood for negative form of li.
The Present Continuative
The meaning of
this tense seems to be “going on doing”. The two forms seem identical in
meaning. There may be some delicate shade to be discovered.
The Definite Present Continuative
“I am still going
on doing” (long duration) seems to be the value of this tense. It always
indicates an action as started in the past and continuing without a break in
the present.
The Present Prefect
The endings of the
monosyllabic and disyllabic verbs in this tense are the same as in the present
of the Negative Mood, which mean see.
This tense
represents an action as completed at the time referred to, as “I have seen”.
When a neuter passive is used in this tense, as ci na vatuka, it may be
translated “it is snapped, it has happened, it has become snapped; nji na
zimbala can be translated “I am lost, or I have become lost”.
The Immediate Past
This describes an
action which has just happened and may still be in process of being carried
out. The monosyllabic and disyllabic verbs change as per rule laid down under
the negative mood.
The Indefinite Medium Past Perfect
This describes an
action as completed in the medium past without relation to anything else. This
tense is distinguished from the homonyms of the Immediate Past by the musical
accent. Example: njá vavála – nja vavála (immediate past).
The Definite Past Perfect
Describes an
action as having occurred in relation to another event. Note that the third
person singular is the same for both forms. The two forms seem the same in
meaning.
The Imperfect Past
Describes an
action as begun in the past and not yet completed.
The Continuing Past
Very much the same
in meaning as the imperfect past, but more definite as to the action. The
difference lies in the musical accent.
The indefinite Past
Describes an
action as having been completed in the indefinite past. With the adverb laza it
may express the past perfect. Example: omo vembile laza muaso, va tuhukile
(when they had sung a song they went out.
This tense follows
a definite law of harmony of vowels and consonants, as follows:
1.
The
final vowel of the stem, -a, is dropped, and verbs having a, e, or o as the
accented vowel of the stem, add ele. Verbs having i or u as the accented vowel
of the stem, add ile.
2.
If
an m or n (not followed by another consonant) occurs in the final syllable, the
suffix is ene or ine as per above vowel agreement.
3.
Verbs
of three or more syllables ending in ola change to uele; verbs of three or more
syllables ending in ula change to uile; verbs of three or more syllables ending
in ona change to uene; verbs of three or more syllables ending in una change to
uine.
4.
In
monosyllabics the root vowel is the first of the diphthong. Some are irregular:
tia – tiele; hia (give) – hele; hia (be ripe) – hile; tsa – tsile; ya – ile. Li
has no past form, being used only in the present. Some disyllabics are also
irregular: ivua – vuile; iziva – zivile; mana (stand) – mene; kala – kele; mona
– muene. Some disyllabics are reduplicative. Example: lele (nurse) – lelelele;
also, all the relative species of the monosyllabics: sila – sililile; sela –
selelele; tela – telelele; uila – uililile, etc. The past form of tsiliela is
usually tsililielele, but some tsilielele.
In all other
tenses and moods where the past form of a verb is called for, it follows the
above rules.
The Definite Past Perfect
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